\ 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


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THE 

ENGLISH  HOME 

BY 

BANISTER  FLIGHT  FLETCHER 

ARCHITECT,  F.R.I.B.A.,  F.S.I. 

BARRISTER-AT-LAW  OF  THE  INNER  TEMPLE 

AND 

HERBERT  PHILLIPS  FLETCHER 

ARCHITECT,  F.R.I.B.A.,  F.S.I.,  A.M.I.C.E. 

BARRISTER-AT-LAW  OF  THE  MIDDLE  TEMPLE 

WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY 

HIS  GRACE  THE  DUKE  OF  ARGYLL,  K.T. 


WITH   336  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW  YORK 
CHARLES  SGRIBNER'S  SONS 
1910 


PREFACE 


Along  preface  would  be  out  of  place  for  this 
work,  as  the  Duke  of  Argyll  has  very  kindly 
written  an  Introduction  which  explains  suc- 
cinctly the  objects  we  had  in  writing  this  book. 

We  can  only  hope  that  our  attempt  to  show  the 
why  and  wherefore  "  in  the  building  of  the  home 
may  to   some  slight  extent   stimulate   the  general 
interest  in  Architecture. 

We  have  had  the  manuscript  in  hand  during  the 
last  three  years,  and  its  publication  has  been  unavoid- 
ably delayed  owing  to  various  causes. 

BANISTER  F.  FLETCHER 
H.  PHILLIPS  FLETCHER 

29  New  Bridge  Street 
LuDGATE  Circus,  E.G. 
June  ist^  igio 


INTRODUCTION  BY  HIS  GRACE  THE 
DUKE  OF  ARGYLL,  K.T. 

OUR  Home!    How  best  to  build  it  for  comfort 
and  beauty  ? 

So  many  things  go  to  the  making  of  an  ideal 
house,  and  yet  how  little  do  many  of  us  concern  our- 
selves with  its  construction  or  with  the  reasons  for  the 
particular  design  of  each  separate  part,  the  nature  of 
the  floors  we  walk  over,  the  walls  which  protect  us 
from  the  cold  and  heat,  and  the  roofs  that  afford  us 
shelter  from  the  weather ! 

It  is  but  too  true  that  the  education  of  most  of  us 
includes  but  little  study  of  architecture — the  oldest  of 
all  the  arts — which  throug^hout  successive  aofes  has 
been  the  outcome  of  progressive  civilization. 

It  is  the  one  art  upon  which  we  are  always  depen- 
dent, whether  in  the  secluded  village  or  the  crowded 
town.  The  lowly  country  cottage,  the  stately  town 
house  or  castle,  all  in  their  place  must  have  their  suit- 
able architectural  form.  In  our  public  schools  we  are 
taught  something  of  the  dwellers  in  many  lands  with 
various  climates,  and  but  little  of  their  dwellings. 

But  our  own  habitation  where  we  spend  the  greater 
part  of  our  lives  often  remains  a  secret  as  to  its  con- 
struction, which  we  are  mostly  content  to  leave  to 
others,  although  the  practical  usefulness  of  our  business 

vii 


viii  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

premises,  the  grandeur  and  dignity  of  our  public 
buildings  and  churches,  the  effective  treatment  of  our 
bridges,  and  the  general  aspect  of  our  streets  depend 
upon  the  adoption  of  suitable  architectural  treatment, 
the  application  of  sound  architectural  principles,  and 
the  co-ordination  of  the  various  parts  of  the  plan. 

People  are  beginning  to  show  a  little  interest  in 
town-planning  as  a  matter  of  national  concern,  and 
the  sequel  of  this  may  be  that  architecture  will  take  its 
place  as  a  necessary  part  of  any  liberal  education,  for 
it  teaches  men  not  only  to  know  but  to  do  the  right 
thing  in  the  right  place  in  the  matter  of  building. 

In  Stalky  Jtmior  Rudyard  Kipling  makes  someone 
say  that  he  thought  all  floors  were  of  solid  wood, 
instead  of  having  joists  or  beams  of  timber  at  inter- 
vals supporting  thin  floor-boards. 

It  has  been  suggested  to  the  Brothers  Fletcher  that 
a  book  written  in  a  terse  and  popular  style  and  giving 
concise  information  about  details  of  the  house  would 
be  of  practical  use  and  interest  to  the  public.  Many 
books  have  been  published  dealing  with  small  houses, 
but  they  are  mostly  of  the  scrap-book  type  of  "pretty 
pictures"  collected  by  the  amateur. 

This  book  attempts  to  explain  the  "why  and  where- 
fore "  of  things  in  building  and  to  draw  attention  to 
essentials  in  design  and  construction  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  layman. 

Messrs.  Fletcher  have  dealt  with  sanitary  construc- 
tion at  some  length  in  their  book  upon  Architectural 
Hygiene  but  that  work  is  written  more  especially 
for  the  architect. 


INTRODUCTION 


ix 


It  has  been  their  endeavour  in  this  book  to  use  no 
perplexing  technical  terms  which  cannot  be  easily 
explained  and  understood. 

It  has  been  sought  so  to  divide  the  subject  as  to 
deal  concisely  in  each  chapter  with  one  portion  of  the 
house  or  its  adjuncts.  The  book  commences  with  an 
historical  review  of  the  development  of  the  English 
Home,  and  the  continuing  chapters  deal  with  the  details 
necessary  to  promote  health  and  comfort  in  a  modern 
house.  A  number  of  examples  with  short  explana- 
tions of  small  homes  executed  by  various  architects 
are  given.  In  addition  to  the  illustrations  of  houses 
designed  by  the  authors,  Messrs.  Arthur  T.  Bolton, 
Walter  Cave,  E.  Guy  Dawber,  Forsyth  and  Maule, 
Arthur  Keen,  E.  L.  Lutyens,  Maurice  H.  Pocock, 
A.  N.  Prentice,  M.  H.  Baillie  Scott,  Harrison  Towns- 
end,  and  C.  F.  A.  Voysey  have  kindly  lent  copies  of 
some  of  their  works  for  reproduction. 

By  this  means  a  number  of  comprehensive  and  com- 
pleted structures  have  been  illustrated,  showing  how 
various  architects  have  dealt  with  different  problems 
that  have  been  referred  to  them.  The  small  illustra- 
tions explanatory  of  the  printed  matter  are  placed  in 
juxtaposition  therewith,  thus  obviating  as  far  as  pos- 
sible the  necessity  of  searching  for  illustrations  in  other 
parts  of  the  work,  though  frequent  cross  references 
are  given  for  the  use  of  those  desiring  fuller  informa- 
tion upon  any  point. 

Takinor  the  house  from  the  commencement  to  the 
completion,  this  little  book  contributes  to  the  right 
understanding  and  practical  knowledge  of  all  those 


X  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

small  things  which  in  these  days  go  to  build  up  the 
English  Home,  which  is  the  envy  and  the  ideal  of  all 
other  nations  of  the  world. 

We  have  in  this  book  two  practical  architects  of 
large  experience  giving  information  and  advice  in  a 
popular,  concise,  and  convenient  form  to  the  increas- 
ing number  of  the  general  public  who  take  an  interest 
in  the  design  and  construction  of  the  houses  in  which 
they  live.  I  think  they  have  succeeded  in  this.  The 
book  may  also  assist  the  reader  in  dealing  successfully 
with  local  builders  and  craftsmen  when  initiating  small 
repairs  and  alterations. 

It  is  possible  that  the  summarized  suggestions  may 
help  to  crystallize  the  somewhat  vague  notions  of  many 
who  wish  to  build  with  reo^ard  to  the  kind  of  structure 
they  deem  desirable,  and  it  may  give  them  some 
approximate  notion  of  the  cost  it  would  entail. 

It  may  also  enable  some  of  us  to  have  more  or  less 
mature  ideas  of  our  requirements  before  we  consult 
with  our  architects,  which  will  greatly  facilitate  the 
preparation  of  preliminary  sketches  ;  for  every  house 
should  Dossess  its  distinctive  character,  which  should 
reflect  the  sentiment  of  the  occupant,  quite  apart  from 
the  professional  impress  of  the  architect's  hand. 

ARGYLL 

2 1st  Aprils  igio 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PACiE 

I.  An  Historical  Review  of  the  English  Home     .  i 

H.  The  Site            .             .             ...  39 

HI.  The  Plan           .             .             ...  46 

IV.  The  Exterior    .             .             .          .       .  58 

V.  Construction      .             .             ...  74 

VI.  The  Interior     .             .             .          .       .  91 

VII.  Water  Supply  and  Fittings  .  .  .102 

VIII.  House  Drainage              .             .          .       .  1 24 

IX.  Sanitary  Fittings             .             .          .       .  139 

X,  The  Ventilation,  Trapping  and  Siphonage  of 

Drains           .             .             ...  154 

XI.  Typical  Drainage  Plans  .             .          .       .  1 60 

XII.  The  Collection  and  Disposal  of  Sewage  and 

Refuse           .             .             ...  166 

XIII.  Heating             .             .             .          .       .  176 

XIV.  Lighting            .             .             ...  192 
XV.  Ventilation        .             .             ...  208 

XVI.  The  Decoration  and  Finishing  of  the  House  .  220 

XVII.  The  Adaptation  of  Existing  Houses  to  Modern 

Requirements              .             ...  229 

XVIII.  Modern  English  Homes  by  different  Architects  246 

XIX.  The  Garden       .              .             .          •       •  358 

XX.  Stables  and  Motor  Garages          .          .       .  364 

xi 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


CHAPTER  I, — An  Historical  Essay  on  the  English  Home 


1.  Plan  of  Keep  of  the  Tower  of  London 

2.  Kenil worth  Castle,  Warwickshire 

3.  Plan  and  Elevation  of  Penshurst  Place,  Kent  . 

4.  Hatfield  House,  Herts.    Ground-floor  Plan 

5.  ,,  First  ,, 

6.  Plans  and  Elevation  of  Holland  House,  Kensington 

7.  Stoke  Park,  Northants.    First-floor  Plan 

8.  Plan,  Section  and  Elevation  of  Castle  Howard,  Yorkshire 
Q.  Holkham  Hall.    First-floor  Plan 


CHAPTER  HI.— The  Plan 

10.  A  Suburban  House.    Ground-floor  Plan  .  .          •       •  53 

11.  A  Semi-detached  House.    First-floor  Plan  .  .          •       •  53 

12.  Ground     ,,  .  .           •       •  53 

13.  A  Bungalow.    Ground-floor  Plan      .  .  ...  54 

14.  An  Entrance  Lodge     ,,          ,,         .  .  .           .        .  54 

15.  A  Doctor's  House       ,,         ,,        .  .  .          .       .  54 

16.  Workmen's  Cottages    ,,         ,,        .  .           •       •  55 

17.  A  Town  House.    Ground-floor  Plan  .  .  •          •       •  55 

18.  ,,                   Second        ,,         .  .  .           •        •  55 

19.  A  Large  Country  House     .              .  .  ...  56 

CHAPTER  IV.— The  Exterior 

20.  Georgian  Sash  Window.    Elevation  .  .  ...  64 

21.  ,,                 ,,              Plan         .  .  ...  64 

22.  ,,              Section     .  ,  ...  64 


CHAPTER  V.^CONSTRUCTION 


23.  A  Hollow  Wall    .              .  .  .  ...  77 

24.  Wall  Tiling         .              .  .  .  ...  78 

25.  A  Horizontal  Damp-proof  Course  .  .  ...  79 

26.  A  Vertical            ,,  .  •  .  .       .  80 

27.  A  Covered  Dry  Area          .  .  .  ...  80 

28.  An  Open  Dry  Area            .  .  .  ...  80 


xui 


XIV 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


ILL-  rA(;E 

29.  The  Gathering  of  Flues      .  .  .  ...  81 

30.  A  Timber  Floor  with  Herring-bone  Strutting    .  .          .       .  82 

31.  Hygienic  Floor    .              .  .  .  ...  82 

32.  A  Double  Floor  .              .  .  .  ...  83 

33.  A  Fire-resisting  Timber  Floor  .  .  ...  84 

34.  A  Steel  and  Concrete  Fire-resisting  Floor  .  .          .       .  84 

35.  A  Reinforced  Concrete  Floor  .  .  ...  85 

36.  A  Wood-block  Floor         .  .  ,  ...  85 

37.  Eaves  of  Roof    .             .  .  .  ...  86 

38.  A  King-post  Roof              .  .  .  ...  87 

39.  A  Queen-post  Roof           .  .  .  .          .       .  M7 

40.  An  Open  Timber  Roof       .  .  .  ...  87 

41.  Pantiling            .             .  .  .  ...  88 

CHAPTER  Vn.— Water  Supply  and  Fittings 

42.  Section  showing  source  of  Spring  Water  .  ...  103 

43.  Section  of  Well   .              .  .  .  ....  104 

44.  Lifting  Pump      .              .  ,  .  ...  104 

45.  Force  Pump        .             .  .  .  .           .       .  104 

46.  ,,           .              .  .  .  .          .       .  105 

47.  Artesian  Well      .              .  .  .  .          .       .  105 

48.  Section  of  Sand  Filter        .  .  .  .          .       .  108 

49.  Berkefeld  Filter   .             .  .  .  •  .          .       .  109 

50.  Automatic  Self-cleansing  Pllter.    Elevation     .  .          .       .  1 10 

51.  ,,                             ,,        Section  .  .          .       .  1 10 

52.  Hydraulic  Ram  .              .  .  .  ...  114 

53.  Water-wheel  Pump            .  .  .  .          .       ,  116 

54.  Turbine-driven  Pump         .  .  .  .          .       .  117 

55.  Underground  Cistern          .  .  .  .          .       .  117 

56.  India-rubber  Cone  Closet  Joint  .  .  .          .       .  118 

57.  Barrel  Union,  Lead  to  Iron  .  .  .          .       .  118 

58.  Iron  to  Iron.  .  .  .          .       .  118 

59.  Connector  Joint           ,,    •  .  •  ...  118 

60.  Boiler  Screw       .             .  .  .  ...  119 

61.  Waste  to  Bath     .              .  .  •  ...  119 

62.  Stop  cock           .              .  .  .  ...  120 

63.  Kelvin's  Tap       .              .  .  .  .           .       .  120 

64.  Quarter-turn  Bib-valve       .  .  .  .           .        .  120 

65.  Clear-way  Wheel  Valve      .  .  .  ...  120 

66.  Full- way  Valve    .              .  .  .  .          .       .  121 

67.  Spring  Valve       .             •  .  .  •          .       .  121 

68.  Bath  Fitting       .             .  .  •  •           .       .  121 

69.  Flap-valve          .              .  •  .  ...  121 

70.  Full- way  Ball-valve           .  .  .  .          .       .  122 

71.  Air  Chamber       .             .  .  .  ...  122 

72.  „               .             .  .  .  ...  122 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


XV 


CHAPTER  VIII.— House  Drainage 

ILL.  PAGB 

73.  Drain  laid  on  Concrete  Bed  .  .  ...  124 

74.  Stanford's  Joint .             .  .  .  ...  126 

75.  M     .              .  .  .  ...  126 

76.  Caulked  Lead  Joint          .  .  .  .           .        .  126 

77.  Taper  Pipe        .             .  .  .  ...  127 

78.  Single  or  Y-Junction         .  .  .  .          .       .  128 

79.  Right-angled  Iron  Bend    .  .  .  ...  128 

80.  Pedestal  Bend    .              .  .  ...  128 

81.  Inspection  Chamber.    Plan  .  .  .           .        .  129 

82.  ,,           Sectional  Elevation      .  ...  129 

83.  Channel  Pipe     .             .  .  .  ...  130 

84.  .              .  .  .  ...  130 

85.  Inspection  Chamber  Junction  .  .  ...  130 

86.  Interceptor  Trap              .  .  .  .           .       .  131 

87.  Stopper          .  .  .  .        >  .       .  131 

88.  Manhole  Cover  .              .  .  .  ...  131 

89.  ,,    for  Internal  Use       .  .•  .  .       .  131 

90.  Open-grid  Cover              .  .  .  ...  132 

91.  Inspection  Pipe  .              .  .  .  ...  132 

92.  Lip  Trap           .              .  .  .  ...  132 

93.  Bad  Form  of  Gully          .  .  .  ...  132 

94.  U-Trap             .              .  .  .  .           •        .  133 

95.  Bell  Trap          .             .  .  .  ..133 

96.  Back-Inlet  Gully              .  .  .  ...  134 

97.  Section  of  Ordinary  Gully  .  .  ...  134 

98.  Dean's  Grease  Trap          .  .  .  .           .        .  134 

99.  Winsers      ,,                   .  .  .  ...  135 

100.  Channel  Shoe    .              .  .  .  ...  135 

101.  Flushing  Gully  .             .  .  .  ...  136 

102.  Inspection  Gully              .  .  .  .          .       .  136 

103.  Stable  Gully      .              .  .  .  ...  137 

104.  Back-flow  Trap .             .  .  .  ...  137 

CHAPTER  IX.— Sanitary  Fittings 

105.  Pan  Closet        .             .  .  .  ...  140 

106.  Long-hopper  Closet         .  .  .  .          .       .  141 

107.  Wash-out  Closet              .  .  .  ...  141 

108.  Short-hopper  Closet         .  .  .  ...  141 

109.  Wash-down       ,,            .  .  .  ...  142 

no.  Simplicitas         ,,            .  .  .  ...  142 

111.  Bracket  Closet   .              .  .  .  ...  142 

112.  Hellyer's  Optimus  Valve  Closet.    Elevation   .  ...  143 

113.  ,,            ,,  Section       .  ...  143 

114.  Shank's  Siphonic  Closet    .  .  .  ...  144 

115.  Silent  Combination  Closet  .  .  .  .       .  145 

116.  Urinal  Basin     .             .  .  .  ...  145 

117.  Range  of  Urinals             .  .  .  ...  145 


xvi 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


11. 1..  PAGE 

118.  riusluDg  Cistern.    Old  type  .  .  ...  146 

119.  ,,                       Modern  type      .  .  ...  146 

120.  Wiped  Soldered  Joint       .  .  .  ...  146 

121.  Astragal  and  Lead  Tack  .  .  .  .           .        .  147 

122.  Section  of  Soil  Pipe  and  Lead  Tack  .  ...  147 

123.  Brass  Ferrule  Joint           .  .  .  ...  148 

124.  Enamelled  Iron  Bath  without  Casing  ,  ...  149 

125.  Ajax  Bath  Overflow          .  .  ,  ...  150 

126.  Range  of  Lavatory  Basins  ,  .  ,           .        .  151 

127.  Scullery  Sink     .              .  .  .  ...  152 

128.  Housemaid's  Sink            ,  .  .  ...  152 

129.  Telescope  Joint  .             .  .  .  •••153 


CHAPTER  X.— The  Ventilation,  Trapping  and  Siphonage 
OF  Drains 


130.  S-Trap             .  .  .  .             .          .       .  156 

131.  D-Trap             .  .  .  ....  157 

132.  P-Trap             .  .  .  .             ...  158 

133.  Anti  D-Trap     .  '  .  .  .             ...  158 

134.  Siphonage  Diagram  .  .  .              ...  159 


CHAPTER  XL— Typical  Drainage  Plans 


135.  Terraced  Houses  drained  towards  the  Front  .  ...  161 

136.  ,,           the  Back  .  ...  162 

137.  Semi-detached  Houses      .              .  .  .  .        .  163 

138.  A  Detached  House           .              .  .  .  .        .  163 

139   A  Town  House  .              .              .  .  ...  164 

140.  A  Small  Stable  .             .             .  .  ...  165 


CHAPTER  Xn.— The  Collection  and  Disposal  of  Refuse 


AND  Sewage 

141.  Pail  Closet        .  .              .  .  ...  166 

142.  Moule's  Earth  Closet  .              .  .  ...  167 

143.  Cesspool           .  .              .  .  ...  168 

144.  Settling  Tank     .  .              .  .  ...  168 

145.  Kaye- Parry's  System.  Plan           .  .  .          .       .  173 

146.  ,,  Longitudinal  Section  .  ...  173 

147.  Transverse  .  .  .  .173 


CHAPTER  XHL— Heating 


148.  The  Devon  Fire  .  .  .  ...  177 

149.  The  Bond     ,,  .  .  .  ...  177 

150.  The  Tilt       ,,  .  .  .  ...  178 

151.  „           „  .  •  •  ...  178 

152.  The  Nautilus  Fire  .  .  .  .  .       .  178 

153.  Welsbach  Kern  Radiator  .  .  .  ...  179 

154.  Anthracite  Stove  .  ,  .  ...  180 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


xvu 


ILL.  PAGE 

155.  Low-pressure  Hot-water  System      .             .  ...  181 

156.  A  Saddle  Boiler               .              .              .  ...  182 

157.  A  Chambered  Boiler         .              .              .  .  .       .  182 

158.  A  Hot-water  Coil            .              .             .  ...  183 

159.  ,,           Radiator      .              .              .  .  .        .  184 

160.  Prometheus  Electric  Radiator  .  .  ...  185 
16  [.  Electric  Cooking  Stove     .              .              .  ...  186 

162.  Flat  Iron              .              .              .  ...  186 

163.  ,,      Kettle    .              .              .              .  ...  186 

164.  The  Tank  Hot-water  System           .              .  ...  187 

165.  Safety  Valve      .              .              .              .  ...  188 

166.  The  Cylinder  Hot-water  System      .              .  ...  189 

167.  Combined  Radiator  and  Towel  Drier              .  ...  190 

CHAPTER  XIV.— Lighting 

168.  Luxfer  Prisms    .              .              .              .  ...  194 

169.  ,,              .              .              .              .  ...  194 

170.  Stott  Gas  Governor          .              .              .  •  •        •  I95 

171.  Inverted  Incandescent  Burner          .              .  ...  195 

172.  De  Laitte  System            .              .              .  ...  196 

173.  Electric  Light  Pendant     .              .              ,  ...  202 

174.  ,,           Balance  Pendant       .              .  ...  202 

175.  ,,           Newel  Standard        .              .  ...  203 

176.  ,,           Table  Lamp              .              .  ...  203 

177.  .,           Arc  Lamp  .              .              .  ...  205 

CHAPTER  XV.— Ventilation 

178.  Sheringham  Ventilator      .              .              .  .  .        .  212 

179.  Tobin  Tube       .              .              .              .  ...  212 

180.  Air  Currents  in  Room       .              .              .  ...  214 

181.  Doulton's  Ventilating  Flue              .              .  .  .        .  214 

CHAPTER  XVII. — The  Adaptation  ok  Existing  Houses 

182.  A  House  in  Guernsey.    Ground-floor  Plan     .  ...  232 

183.  •                       First                       .  ...  232 

184.  ,,            Second       ,,            .  ...  232 

185.  ,,                ,,            The  Front                .  .  .        .  233 

186.  A  Country  House  in  Hampshire.    Ground-floor  Plan  .  .       .  235 

187.  „                                           The  Staircase  Hall   .  .        .  237 

188.  ,,              ,,                            The  Sitting-hall  showing  Fireplace  237 

189.  ,,              ,,                            The  Library  .  .        .  238 

190.  ,,              ,,            The  Drawing-room  .  .        .  23S 

191.  ,,                            The  Entrance  Front  .        .  239 

192.  A  Town  House.    First-floor  Plan    .              .  ...  242 

193.  ,,          ,,        Second               •              .  ...  242 

194.  ,,           ,,        The  Drawing-room             .  ...  243 

195.  A  Small  Country  House.    Sitting-hall  showing  Fireplace  .        .  244 

196.  ,,             ,,       Bay  Window  .       .  244 


xviii 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


CHAPTER  XVIII.— Modern  English  Homes 
Arthur  T.  Bolton,  F.R.I.B.A.    A  Seaside  Home  in  Thanet 

ILI-  PAfiK 

197.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .             .  ...  247 

198.  First          ,,                   .             .             .  ...  247 

199.  Attic  Plan         .              .              .              .  ...  247 

200.  Drawing-room  .              .              .              .  ...  249 

201.  Sea  Front          .             .              .              .  ...  249 

Walter  Cave,  F.R.I.B.A.    Bengeo  House,  Hertford 

202.  Ground-floor  Plan            .             .              .  ...  252 

203.  p'irst            ,,                  ,              .              .  ...  252 

204.  Attic  Plan         .              .              .              .  ...  252 

205.  The  Hall          .              .              .              .  ...  253 

206.  The  Drawing-room           .              .              .  ...  253 

207.  South  Elevation                             .              .  ...  254 

208.  South-west  Elevation        .              .              .  ...  254 

Sherwood,  Nezvton  St.  Cyres  [nr.  Exeter),  Devon 

209.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .             .  ...  256 

210.  First           ,,                   .              .              .  ...  256 

E.  Guy  Dawher,  F.R.I.B.A.    Maes  Heulyn,  Trefnant,  North  Wales 

211.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  258 

212.  First           ,,                  .              .              .  ...  258 

213.  The  Entrance  Forecourt    ....  .  259 

214.  The  Garden  Front           .              .              .  .          .       .  259 

215.  The  Hall  and  Staircase     .              .              .  ...  260 

216.  The  Drawing-room           .              .              .  ...  260 

Wynnes  Pa7X,  North  Wales 

217.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  262 

218.  First           ,,                   .              .              .  ...  262 

219.  The  Parlour       .              .              .              .  ...  263 

220.  The  Entrance  Forecourt    .              .             .  ...  263 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R.I.B.A.    Seldown,  Potters  Bar 

221.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  266 

222.  First           ,,                   .              .              .  ...  266 

223.  Attic  Plan         .              .              .             .  ...  266 

224.  Garden  Front    .             ,             .             .  ...  267 

225.  The  Entrance  Front         .             .             .  ...  267 

Honieleigh,  Potters  Bar 

226.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  270 

227.  First            ,,                 .              .              .  ...  270 

228.  Attic  Plan         .              .              .             .  ...  270 

229.  The  Sitting-hall              .              .              •  ...  271 

230.  The  Dining-room             .              .              .  .           .        .  271 

231.  The  Garden  Front            .             .             .  ...  272 

232.  The  Entrance  Front         .              .             .  ...  272 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 

The  Three  Gables,  Potters  Bar 

ILL.  PAGE 

233.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  274 

234.  First                               .              .              .  ...  274 

235.  Attic  Plan         .              .              .              ,  ...  274 

236.  The  Drawing-room           .              .              .  ...  275 

237.  The  Dining-room              .              .              .  ...  275 

238.  Ingle-nook  in  Inner  Hall  (of  Homeleigh)        .  ...  276 

239.  The  Sitting-hall  and  Dining-room  Ingle  beyond     .  .          .       .  276 

240.  The  Garden  Front           .              .             .  ...  277 

241.  The  Entrance  Front         .              .             .  ...  277 

The  Fourth  House,  Potters  Bar 

242.  Ground -floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  28 

243.  First           ,,                  .              .              .  ...  280 

244.  Attic  Plan         .              .              .              .  ...  280 

245.  Dining-room      .              .              .              .  ...  281 

246.  The  Entrance  Front         .              .              .  ...  281 

The  Fifth  House,  Potters  Bar 

247.  The  Entrance  Front         .              .              .  ...  282 

Chtirchill,  West  Hanipstead 

248.  Ground-floor  Plan            .             .              .  ...  285 

249.  First            ,,                  .              .              .  ...  985 

250.  The  Entrance  Front         .              .             .  ...  285 

House  at  Ashford 

251.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  286 

252.  First            ,,  ,               .              .              .  ...  286 

253.  The  Garden  Front            .              .              .  .          \        .  286 

Cuthbert  Villas,  Westgafe-on-Sea 

254.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  289 

255.  First            ,,                  .              .              .  ...  289 

256.  Attic  Plan         .              ,              .              .  ...  289 

257.  The  Entrance  Fronts        .              .              .  ...  291 

Canterbtiry  Parade,  Westgate-ou-Sea 

258.  The  Entrance  Fronts        .              .              .  ...  291 

Observatory  House,  Wcstgale-on-Sea 

259.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  294 

260.  First           ,,                   .              .              .  ...  294 

261.  Second                           .              .             .  ...  294 

262.  The  Entrance  Front         .              .              .  ...  295 

Ladywell,  West  Hampstead 

263.  Half-basement  Plan         .              .              .  ...  296 

264.  Ground-floor       ,,            .              .              .  ...  296 

265.  First                               .              .              .  ...  296 

266.  The  Entrance  Front         .              .              .  ...  296 


XX 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Country  House  in  Surrey 

ILL.  PAGE 

267.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  299 

268.  First           ,,                   .              .              ,  ...  299 

269.  The  Entrance  Front          .              .              .  ...  299 

Garden  Pavilion 

270.  View  from  Lake               .              .              .  ...  300 

Forsyth  and  Manle,  FF.K.  I.B.A.    Nezv  Farm-house,  Astonbury^ 
He  rtfo ;  xisJi  ii  e 

271.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  303 

272.  First                              .              .             .  ...  303 

273.  Sitting-room      .              .              ,              .  ...  304 

274.  The  Entrance  f>ont         .              .              ,  ...  305 

Cottages  at  Asionbnry,  Hertfordshire 

275.  Ground-floor  Plan            .                           ....  307 

276.  First           ,,                  .              .             .  ...  307 

277.  Interior  of  a  Bedroom      .              .              .  ...  308 

278.  The  Entrance  Front         .              .              .  ...  308 

Arthur  Keen,  F.  R.  I.B.A.    Ei/nstead^  LiJiipsJield,  Siii-rey 

279.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  310 

280.  P^irst           ,,                   .              .              .  ...  310 

281.  The  Entrance  Front          .              .              .  ...  311 

282.  The  Garden  Front            .              .              .  .           .        .  311 

E.  L.  Liityens,  F.R.I.B.A.     Giey  lld//s,  GuUane,  N.B. 

283.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  314 

284.  First  ,  .  .  ...  314 
2S5.  Block  Plan        .              .              .             .  ..-315 

286.  Entrance  Lodges  for  Valets  and  Chauffeurs     .  .           .        •  3^5 

287.  The  Entrance  Door          .              .              .  .           .       .  316 

288.  The  Drawing-room           .              .              .  ...  316 

289.  The  Garden  Front            .              .              .  .           •        •  3^7 

290.  The  Entrance  Front         .              .              .  ...  317 

291.  The  Roundel     .              .              .              .  ...  318 

292.  Dining-room,  "Anglebay."  Banister,  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R  I  B  A., 

Architects     .              .             .              .  ...  318 

Maurice  H.  Pocock.    Liltlewick  Meauozu,  Horsell,  Surrey 

293.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .             .  ...  320 

294.  First                              .              .              .  ...  320 

295.  The  Garden  Front            .             .              .  ...  321 

296.  The  Entrance  Front         .              .              .  ...  322 

Cottage  at  IJ^endover,  Bucks 

297.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  324 

298.  First                               .              .              .  ...  324 

299.  The  Entrance  Front         .              .              .  ...  325 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xxl 

A.  N.  Prentice^  F.R.I.B  A-    O'chard  Fanii,  Broadway^  IVorccstcishire 

nr..  PAGE 

3C0.  View  from  Road              .              .              ,  ...  327 

301.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  329 

yl/  H.  Baillie  Scott.    Semi-detached  Houses,  Hanipstead  Garden  Si^hurb 

302.  Ground-floor  Plan            ,              ,              ,  ...  333 

303.  First           ,,                  .              .              .  ...  333 

304.  The  Entrance  Front          .              .              .  ...  333 

305.  The  Garden  Front           ,              ,             ,  ,          ,       .  333 

306.  View  from  Road              .              .              ,  ,          ,       .  333 

307.  The  Living-room             .             ,             .  ...  334 

House  at  Biddenham 

308.  The  Living-room             .             .             .  ...  336 

C.  Harrison  Toivnsend,  F.  R.  I.  B,  A.    House  at  Letchworth 

309.  The  Garden  Plan             .             .             .  ...  339 

310.  Ground-floor  Plan            .              .              .  ...  340 

311.  First           „                 .             .             .  ...  340 

312.  The  Hall  Mantelpiece      .              .             .  ...  341 

313.  The  Dining-room  Mantelpiece         .              .  ...  341 

314.  The  Garden  Front            .              .              ,  ...  342 

315.  The  Entrance  Front         .              .              .  ...  342 

C.  F.  A.  Voysey.     The  Hotnestead,  Frinton-on-Sea 

316.  Ground-floor  and  Garden  Plan         .              .  ...  344 

317.  Part  of  Dining-room         .              .              .  ...  345 

318.  The  Parlour,  showing  Ligle-nook  Fireplace     .  ...  345 

319.  The  Dining-room  Fireplace             .              .  ...  346 

320.  The  Parlour  looking  S.  W.  and  showing  Billiard  Tal)le    .  .        .  346 

321.  The  Garden  Front           .              .              .  ...  347 

322.  The  Entrance  Front         .             .              .  ...  347 

Hollymount,  Beaconsjield 

323.  The  Garden  Front           .              .              .  ...  351 

324.  The  Entrance  Front         .              .              .  .          .       .  351 

325.  Ground-floor  Plan            .             .              .  ...  353 

326.  First                             »             .             .  ...  353 

The  Orchard,  Chorley  Wood 

327.  The  Dining-room  looking  North      .              .  ...  355 

328.  South      .              .  •          •       •  355 

329.  The  Ground-floor  Plan     .              .              .  ...  357 

330.  The  First           ,,           .              .              .  ...  357 

331.  The  Entrance  Front         .              .             ,  ...  357 

CHAPTER  XX.— Stables  and  Motor  Garages 

332.  Churchill  Stables.    The  Ground-floor  plan     .  ...  365 

333.  ,,                The  First                       .  .          •       •  365 

334.  The  Elevation  .              .  ...  365 

335.  Motor  Garage.    Plan       ...             .  .          .       .  373 

336.  ,,            Section  .             ,             ,  •          •       •  373 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


CHAPTER  I 

AN  HISTORICAL  REVIEW  OF  THE 
ENGLISH  HOME 

Feudal  System — Saxon  (eleventh  century) — Norman  (the  latter  part 
of  eleventh  century  and  the  twelfth  century) — Early  English  (thirteenth 
century)  —  Decorated  (fourteenth  century)  —  Perpendicular  (fifteenth 
century) — Tudor  (the  first  half  of  sixteenth  century) — The  Early 
Renaissance,  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean  (the  latter  half  of  sixteenth 
century  and  first  half  of  seventeenth  century) — The  Late  Renaissance, 
Anglo-Classic,  Queen  Anne  and  Georgian  (the  latter  half  of  seven- 
teenth century  and  eighteenth  century) — Modern  Architecture  (nineteenth 
and  twentieth  centuries). 

THE  evolution  of  the  English  Home  through 
the  past  ages  is  an  integral  part  of  the  history 
of  the  English  people,  and  provides  an  index 
to  the  progressive  social  conditions  which  were  re- 
sponsible for  the  type  of  houses  erected  in  each 
century.  The  domestic  architecture  of  England  de- 
veloped concurrently  with  the  expansion  of  its  trade, 
civilization,  wealth  and  power,  and  reflected  in  each 
period  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people,  and 
was  influenced  by  increased  intercourse  with  Con- 
tinental nations. 

Feudal  System — The  feudal  system  for  centuries 
largely   determined  the  character  of  the  domestic 
architecture  of  England.     Every  baronial  seat  and 
manor-house,  owing  to  the  ample  jurisdiction  granted 
I 


4 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


mencement  of  the  foundation  of  the  Gothic  nations 
circa  a.d.  iooo,  dwelling-houses  and  indeed  all  build- 
ings, with  the  exception  of  some  important  monasteries 
and  churches,  were  extremely  primitive,  and  thus 
corresponded  with  the  habits  of  the  people. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  commence  our  research  earlier 
than  the  Saxon  period,  for  the  effect  on  domestic 
architecture  of  the  Roman  occupation  of  Western 
Europe  was  not  permanent,  as  the  villas  of  the 
Imperial  Roman  officers  were  not  constructed  in 
accordance  with  the  local  and  climatic  requirements. 

Castles — Among  the  Saxons,  castles  were  of  little 
account,  and  were  not  utilized  as  residences  ;  they  con- 
sisted of  an  earthwork  fortification  surrounding  a 
central  mound,  sometimes  with  a  tower  built,  not 
infrequently,  of  wood. 

The  Hall — The  Gothic  nations,  owing  to  their  com- 
mon origin  and  similar  methods  of  life,  evolved  a 
distinctive  type  of  dwelling,  consisting  of  the  Common 
Hall  or  House  Place  ;  this  latter  was  a  single  apart- 
ment often  some  thirty  to  forty  feet  in  length  and 
about  half  that  in  width. 

The  first  essential,  due  to  the  rigour  of  the  climate, 
was  shelter  from  the  elements,  and  this  was  provided 
by  the  Hall  or  covered  enclosure,  which  continued  to 
be  the  principal  apartment  throughout  the  mediaeval 
period.  This  is  in  direct  contrast  to  the  ancient  Roman 
House  in  which  the  chief  feature  was  the  uncovered 
court  or  atidum  derived  from  the  East,  where  it  pre- 
vails even  to  the  present  day.  In  this  and  even  in 
succeeding  centuries  the  Hall  sometimes  formed  the 
sole  living-room,  sleeping-room  and  kitchen  for  the 
owner,  his  family,  his  guests  and  his  serfs. 

Light  was  admitted  through  small  windows,  closed 


NORMAN  PERIOD 


5 


with  wicker  shutters,  and  warmth  was  obtained  from 
the  log  fire  on  a  central  hearth,  the  smoke  escaping 
through  an  opening  in  the  roof. 

Chamber — In  the  better  class  of  dwellinors  a  second 
apartment  known  as  the  Chamber  was  sometimes 
added,  and  was  used  during  the  day  as  a  withdrawing- 
room  for  business,  and  during  the  night  as  a  private 
sleeping-room. 

The  royal  residences,  however,  were  provided  with 
extra  accommodation,  consisting  of  the  Chapel,  Gran- 
ary, Bakehouse,  Storehouse  and  Kitchen,  the  latter 
being  usually  detached  on  account  of  the  risk  of  fire. 

NORMAN  (the  latter  part  of  eleventh 

CENTURY  AND  THE  TWELFTH  CENTURY) 

Castles — During  the  latter  part  of  the  eleventh  and 
the  commencement  of  the  twelfth  centuries  numerous 
castles  were  constructed,  and  over  one  thousand  were 
built  during  the  reign  of  Stephen  alone. 

The  Square  Keep,  or  stronghold,  w^as  usually 
four  stories  in  height,  and  was  surrounded  by  an 
inner  and  occasionally  also  by  an  outer  "  Bailey"  (i.e. 
ward  or  court)  and  by  a  lofty  wall  with  ramparts  and 
a  deep  moat. 

The  Royal  Castle  known  as 
the  Tower  of  London  (111.  i), 
constructed  by  Bishop  Gundulf, 
in  A.D.  1078,  for  William  I,  is 
an  important  example  to  which 

1  1-  •  1      1        III.  I.    Plan  of  Keep  of 

many  additions  were  made  by  the  tower  of  London. 
later  monarchs.    It  has  an  Outer 

Ward  protected  by  a  surrounding  wall  with  eight 
towers  and  an  Inner  Ward  protected  by  another  wall 
with  thirteen  towers. 


(ifiwr?w 


6 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


The  Shell  Keep  is  another  type  supposed  by  some 
to  be  derived  from  an  Anglo-Saxon  precedent,  in 
which  the  buildings  were  arranged  round  a  polygonal 
or  circular  court. 

Windsor,  Rochester,  Alnwick,  Warkworth,  Berke- 
ley, Warwick,  Newcastle,  Arundel,  Norham,  Bam- 
borough,  Dover,  Richmond  (Yorks),  Cardiff,  Farnham 
(Surrey),  Durham,  Chipchase,  Scarborough,  Oakham 
(Rutland),  Oxford,  and  Castle  Rising  (Norfolk),  are  all 
examples  of  the  period,  which  have  been  either  much 
altered  to  bring  them  into  line  with  modern  require- 
ments or  have  been  allowed  to  fall  into  a  ruinous 
condition. 

Monastic  Buildings — Monastic  buildings  were  con- 
siderably in  advance  of  the  primitive  castles.  Castle 
Acre  Priory,  Norfolk,  has  apartments,  such  as  the 
Refectory,  Dormitory,  Library,  Scriptorium  (Writing- 
room),  arranged  around  a  cloister  garth,  on  the  north 
side  of  which  was  the  church. 

Manor-houses — Manor-houses,  Farm-houses  and 
Granges  were  frequently  walled  and  moated,  and 
appear  to  have  been  built  on  one  uniform  plan,  com- 
prising a  Hall  with  chambers  adjacent. 

The  Hall  was  frequently  the  only  large  apartment  in 
such  edifices  to  accommodate  the  owner,  his  retinue 
and  servants. 

In  Saxon  and  Norman  times  the  Manor-house  was 
known  as  the  Hall  (from  the  Anglo-Saxon  heall), 
which  appears  to  be  the  origin  of  the  modern  term 
Hall  as  applied  to  so  many  country  residences.  This 
apartment,  and  not  infrequently  the  whole  building, 
was  in  mediaeval  Latin  termed  the  aula. 

Thus  the  Hall  with  its  central  log  fire,  the  Solar 
or  chamber,  frequently  on  an  upper  story,  the  Kitchen, 


EARLY  ENGLISH  PERIOD  7 


the  Servery  or  general  service-room,  the  Larder  for 
preserving-  (larding)  meat,  and  the  Cellar  (frequently 
situated  under  the  Solar),  made  up  a  typical  Manor- 
house  of  the  period.  In  the  succeeding  centuries  this 
arrangement  was  adhered  to,  other  rooms  being  added 
to  correspond  with  the  new  ideas  of  comfort  and 
convenience. 

Boothby  Pagnall  (Lines)  Manor-house  and  the 
old  house  at  Christchurch  (Hampshire)  are  examples 
of  this  period. 

Peasants'  Dwellings — The  smaller  houses  of  the 
peasants  or  serfs,  which  were  gradually  grouped 
around  the  castles,  were  of  a  very  simple  character, 
and  frequently  had  only  one  living-room. 

Town  Dwellings — The  town  dwellings  often  con- 
sisted of  a  ground-floor  shop,  behind  which  was  the 
living-room  and  a  yard.  An  external  door  sometimes 
led  to  a  staircase  which  gave  access  to  an  upper  floor. 

The  Jews'  House,  Lincoln,  and  Moyses'  Hall  at 
Bury  St.  Edmunds  are  fine  specimens  of  this  period. 

EARLY  ENGLISH  (thirteenth  century) 

Castles — The  thirteenth  century  was  largely  de- 
voted to  the  enlargement  and  improvement  of  exist- 
ing castles. 

The  inconvenient  four-storied  Keeps,  although  still 
retained  in  some  cases  for  use  in  times  of  war,  were 
frequently  abandoned  in  favour  of  a  Hall  and 
Chambers  constructed  in  the  Inner  Ward. 

The  Hall,  which  was  usually  the  third  story  of  the 
Keep  and  had  over  it  the  Chamber  or  Withdrawing- 
room,  was  reached  by  spiral  stairs  and  was  found 
to  be  in  a  very  inconvenient  position,  more  especially 
having  regard  to  the  increased  hospitality  of  the 


8 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


period.  Many  castles  therefore  still  retained  the 
Keep  and  surrounding  walls  and  defences,  and  were 
brought  up  to  date  by  the  addition  of  a  new  building 
on  the  lines  of  the  Manor-houses  which  were  then 
being  built.  Such  houses  were  constructed  in  the 
space  within  the  Inner  Bailey,  and  consisted  of  a 
capacious  Hall,  one  wall  of  which  formed  part  of  the 
circumvallation.  At  one  end  of  this  Hall  were  placed 
the  Kitchen  and  domestic  offices,  and  at  the  other  the 
Solar  and  other  family  apartments. 

The  new  castles  built  principally  in  Wales  by 
Edward  I  were  designed  on  the  new  concentric 
model,  in  which  the  Citadel  was  not  the  Keep 
of  the  Norman  period  but  the  Inner  Court  or  Bailey, 
which  contained  the  residential  building  ranged  around 
its  walls,  and  formed  a  private  court  surrounded  by  a 
massive  line  of  towers,  and  further  defended  by  other 
lines  of  circumvallation,  which  contained  the  stables 
and  other  out-buildings. 

Examples  —  Caerphilly  (Glamorganshire),  Beau- 
maris (Anglesey),  Conway  (Carnarvonshire),  Prudhoe 
(Northumberland),  Pembroke,  Leeds  (Kent),  and 
Stokesay  (Shropshire)  are  examples  of  this  period. 

Manor-houses — There  was  now  a  considerable  im- 
provement in  the  arrangement  and  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  the  apartments  in  the  Fortified  Manor- 
houses  belonging  to  the  Clergy  and  to  the  Crown,  and 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  III  licences  to  "  crenellate  " 
or  fortify  Manor-houses  were  largely  issued.  Yan- 
wath  Hall  (Westmorland),  Charney  Bassett  (Berkshire), 
and  Little  Wenham  Hall  (Suffolk)  are  of  this  period. 
Such  Manor-houses  were  preferred  as  permanent 
family  residences  to  the  inconvenient  Keeps  of  the 
earlier  period.     Much  information  concerning  those 


EARLY  ENGLISH  PERIOD 


9 


which  belonged  to  the  Crown  is  to  be  obtained  from 
the  Liberate  rolls  of  Henry  III,  and  we  first  hear  of 
the  Buttery,  Pantry,  Larder,  and  Wardrobe,  but 
these  were  more  commonly  found  in  the  fourteenth 
century  and  are  there  described  (see  p.  14). 

The  Hall — The  Hall  was  still  the  principal  living- 
apartment  and  also  formed  the  general  dormitory,  in 
conjunction  with  the  lofts  and  stables  which  were  still 
utilized  by  the  retainers. 

Family  Apartments — The  apartments  adjacent  to  the 
Hall  were  sometimes  so  arranged  as  to  form  three 
sides  of  a  quadrangle,  as  at  Charney  Bassett  (Berk- 
shire), where  a  Chapel  or  Oratory  adjoins  the  Solar 
or  Upper  Chamber. 

The  apartments  were  all  approached  through  one 
another,  and  thus  formed  thoroughfare  rooms.  The 
fireplaces  were  few  ;  the  Hall  still  preserving  its 
central  hearth  ;  other  rooms  being  probably  heated 
by  portable  braziers. 

Windows — Windows  of  domestic  buildings  appear 
to  have  been  first  glazed  in  this  century,  but  glass 
was  a  luxury  and  was  still  used  in  conjunction  with 
wooden  shutters,  such  as  may  be  seen  in  the  poorer 
districts  of  old  Continental  towns.  The  absence  of 
glass  in  domestic  buildings  was  due  to  the  fact  that 
none  was  manufactured  in  this  country  until  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  it  is  not  till  a.d.  1439,  in 
connection  with  the  Beauchamp  Chapel  (Warwick), 
that  any  mention  of  English  glass  occurs.  Up  to  this 
period  it  had  been  obtained  from  Normandy,  the  Low 
Countries  and  Venice  in  exchanoe  for  wool — the 
English  staple  production — but  owing  to  its  fragile 
character  there  had  not  been  any  extensive  importa- 
tion of  it. 


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Furniture — The  walls  were  generally  bare,  without 
either  tapestry  or  wainscoting.  The  furniture  was  of 
the  rudest  description,  and  was  limited  to  tables 
resting  on  trestles  and  benches  and  forms  made  by 
carpenters  on  the  spot.  The  bed  was  occasionally 
of  the  tester  {testier)  type,  i.e.  provided  with  a  canopy 
for  the  protection  of  the  head. 

Floor  Covering-s — The  Hall  F'loor  was  still  usually 
of  clay.  Carpets  were  introduced  from  Spain  by 
Eleanor  of  Castile,  but  were  extremely  rare,  and 
could  only  have  been  used  in  the  better  type  of 
houses,  for  the  poorer  classes  had  only  the  barest 
necessaries. 

DECORATED  (fourteenth  century) 

Castles — Castles  were  now  constructed  upon  the 
model  of  the  Manor-houses  of  the  day.  Kenilworth 


5WAN 
T0W[RJ 


ANCIENT  MOAT 


.L0NN5 
TOWLR 
Ii7y 


iimmm 

CAMIE    a 'NORMAN  kelp  1120,  B'B/SNQUETII1(i  HALL  I3S2^ 

C-MERVYN'^  TOWER,  D^WHITEHALL  E=PR[m[  CHAMBER  15^2. 
r  =  HENRY BUILDINGS  1520,  G-LEICE5TEr>"j  601LDING5  1571 

III.  2.    Plan  of  Kenilworth  Castle,  Warwickshire. 


Castle,  which  came  to  John  of  Gaunt  by  marriage  in 
A.D.  1362,  is  an  example  of  a  castle  which  was  much 
altered  during  this  period.  The  Norman  Keep  was 
retained  as  a  relic  of  the  past  and  as  a  means  of 


DECORATED  PERIOD 


defence,  but  was  not  incorporated  in  the  new  build- 
inos  which  were  constructed  round  the  Inner  Court. 
These  had  a  fine  entrance  porch,  and  there  was  a 
magnificent  banqueting-hall  with  screens  and  dais, 
family  apartments,  kitchen  and  offices  (111.  2).  The 
castle  was  further  altered  two  centuries  later  by  the 
Earl  of  Leicester. 

Pele  Towers — The  fortified  houses  known  in  the 
border  counties  of  Wales  and  Scotland  as  Pele 
Tozvers  were  in  many  cases  merely  the  original  Keep 
round  which  the  later  buildings  were  grouped.  The 
ground  floor  of  the  Pele  Towers  was  usually  vaulted, 
the  upper  stories  having  wooden  floors  and  roofs 
with  the  staircase  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall. 

Manor-houses — A  characteristic  Manor-house  of  the 
period  was  built  round  either  three  or  four  sides  of  a 
quadrangle,  and  the  entire  space  thus  occupied  by  the 
court  and  buildings  was  surrounded  by  a  moat. 

The  gatehouse  on  the  entrance  side  was  protected 
by  a  portcullis  and  drawbridge,  and  the  whole  pre- 
sented a  castellated  appearance.  On  the  side  opposite 
the  entrance  was  the  porch  leading  to  the  Hall,  with 
the  Kitchens  and  Offices  arranged  on  one  side,  and  the 
family  apartments  and  chapel  on  the  other  (111.  3). 

A  Porch  led  into  the  screens  (111.  3c),  a  passage- 
way or  vestibule  which  was  separated  by  two  doors 
from  the  Hall  itself,  and  by  three  doors  on  the  other 
side  from  the  Kitchens  and  Offices.  Over  this  passage 
was  the  Minstrels'  Gallery. 

In  the  Vestibule  there  was  usually  a  lavatory  basin 
with  water-drain,  for  washing  the  hands  before  and 
after  meals. 

The  Hall— The  Hall,  which  had  already  taken  the 
place    of   the    older    Keep,   and   had    become  the 


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central  feature  of  these  buildings,  attained  its  highest 
development,  and  perfection  in  this  century.  The 
Royal  Palace  or  Hall  of  Westminster,  with  its  lofty 
walls,  large  traceried  windows  and  elaborate  timber 


^^^^^^^ 


A.GRErtT 
c.  5cr-" 


III.  3.    Plan  and  Elevation  of  Penshurst  Place,  Kent. 

roof,  is  as  fine  as  any  ecclesiastical  edifice  of  the 
period. 

The  Lord  of  the  Manor  still  held  his  Court  in  the 
Hall  (111.  3),  and  his  vassals  and  serfs  met  at  one 
large  table  for  meals  in  this  feudal  period  when  the 
English  peasantry  were  slaves,  the  absolute  property 
of  their  lord,  "to  be  bought  and  sold  as  the  livestock 


DECORATED  PERIOD  13 

of  an  estate."  The  Hall,  as  in  the  previous  century, 
frequently  formed  the  sleeping-place  for  the  retainers, 
who  were,  however,  sometimes  lodged  in  dormitories 
or  in  the  stables. 

It  was  also  still  the  general  custom  for  the  family, 
the  quests  and  retainers  to  take  their  meals  in  the 
Common  Hall,  where  the  family  were  seated  at  the 
high  table  on  the  raised  dais  (111.  3  a)  at  the  opposite 
end  to  the  screens  ;  but  as  time  went  on  there  was 
a  desire  for  greater  privacy,  and  so  the  family  dined 
in  one  of  the  smaller  rooms. 

Family  Apartments — The  Family  Apartments  were  also 
gradually  increased  in  number  in  order  to  afford  more 
privacy. 

The  old  Solar,  also  known  as  the  Lord's  Chamber 
or  Parlour,  was  increased  in  size  and  became  known 
as  the  Withdrawing-room  (hence  Drawing-room), 
and  was  frequently  situated  behind  the  dais  on  the 
upper  floor,  with  an  opening  which  enabled  the  master 
to  have  surveillance  of  the  proceedings  in  the  Hall 
below.  There  was  sometimes  a  Cellar  or  a  second 
Parlour  under  this  apartment  on  the  ground-floor  level. 

A  Lady's  Chamber  (or  bower)  was  now  often  pro- 
vided in  the  larger  houses  in  proximity  to  the  With- 
drawing-room, and  no  doubt  frequently  also  answered 
the  purpose  of  the  best  bedroom. 

Bedchambers — Besides  the  Withdrawing-room  and 
Lady's  Bower  which  usually  contained  beds,  there 
were  a  number  of  Bedrooms  in  these  larger  houses, 
many  of  which  were  no  doubt  provided  with  several 
beds  according  to  their  size. 

Bathroom — This  room  appears  to  have  come  into 
existence  in  a  very  primitive  way,  and  was  provided 
merely  with  a  large  tub  and  a  lead-lined  stone  laver. 


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Wardrobe — The  Wardrobe  served  as  a  store  for 
clothes  instead  of  the  chests,  and  this  room  was  also 
used  for  the  makincr  of  the  various  ofarments. 

Chapel — The  Chapel  had  occasionally  two  stories 
in  its  western  portion,  the  upper  being  used  for  the 
family  and  guests,  the  lower  for  the  retainers  and 
domestics.  A  small  chamber  was  frequently  attached 
for  the  use  of  the  priest,  chaplain,  or  friar,  as  at 
Brouohton  Castle. 

Kitchen  and  Offices — Of  the  three  doorways  (see  p.  Il) 
in  the  screens  leading  to  the  service  department, 
the  central  one  often  opened  into  the  Kitchen, 
or  to  a  passage  leading  to  the  same  (111.  3  n).  The 
Kitchen  in  the  Bishop's  Palace  at  Chichester  and  the 
famous  monastic  Kitchen  at  Durham  (dating  from 
A.D.  1368)  are  well-known  examples.  Kitchens  were, 
however,  frequently  detached,  probably  as  a  security 
against  fire,  as  in  the  Abbot's  Kitchen  at  Glaston- 
bury, and  also  at  Raby  Castle,  where  the  Kitchen  is 
still  in  use.  One  of  the  other  two  doors  opened 
into  x}(\^  Buttery  (111.  3B).  The  word  buttery  is  derived 
from  the  French  bouteille^d,  bottle,  hence  the  word 
butlery  or  buttery  as  applied  to  the  room  where  the 
wine  bottles  and  other  vessels  were  kept,  and  the 
word  butler  (i.e.  bottler)  as  applied  to  the  man  in 
charge.  The  term  is  still  employed  in  colleges. 
The  remaining  door  opened  into  the  Pantry  (from 
the  French  /^z/;^  =  bread),  which  was  the  room  in 
which  the  bread,  butter,  cheese,  also  platters  and  salt- 
cellars, etc.,  were  kept  (111.  3  d). 

An  important  room,  not  usually  reached  from  the 
screens,  was  the  Larder  [Lardartu7?i),  in  which  the 
meats  were  larded  or  preserved,  and  which  also 
formed  the  storeroom  for  the  cook,  the  preserved 


DECORATED  PERIOD  15 

meat  being  brought  into  the  kitchen  in  such  quantities 
as  were  required  Sometimes  salting  was  preferred, 
in  which  case  the  apartment  was  known  as  the  Sal- 
sariiiin. 

Fireplaces — Wall  fireplaces  with  corbelled  chimney 
hoods  became  more  usual  in  this  century,  but  although 
these  were  found  in  the  Withdrawino-room  and 
smaller  apartments,  the  Hall  frequently  had  only  the 
central  fire  placed  on  a  hearth. 

Charcoal,  wood  and  turf  were  the  most  usual  fuels, 
but  coal  appears  to  have  been  used  to  a  certain 
extent,  although  it  was  from  time  to  time  prohibited 
as  a  nuisance. 

Windows — Glazed  windows  were  still  rare  except 
in  the  most  important  houses  owing  to  the  costliness 
of  orlass  and  the  fact  that  it  was  not  then  manu- 
factured  in  England  (see  p.  9). 

Walls  and  Floor  Coverings — Rushes  and  Straw,  some- 
times mixed  with  sweet  herbs,  formed  the  usual  carpet- 
ing, but  the  dais  in  the  Hall  frequently  had  a  wooden 
floor.  The  walls  were  now  hung  with  tapestries  and 
trophies  of  the  chase. 

Examples — Penshurst  Place,  Kent  (111.  3),  of  the 
period  of  Edward  II,  is  a  typical  example  of  a  fine 
Hall  with  raised  dais  and  bay  window  at  one  end  and 
the  screens  at  the  other,  while  the  open  timbered 
roof  has  still  the  louvre  or  opening  for  the  escape 
of  smoke  from  the  central  fire. 

Ightham  Mote  (Kent),  Raglan,  Langley  and 
Haworth  Castles,  Sutton  Courtenay  Manor-house 
(Berkshire),  Prior  Crawden's  House,  Ely,  parts  of 
Broughton  Castle  (Oxfordshire),  and  Ludlow  Castle 
(Shropshire)  are  smaller  examples  of  the  Manor-house 
type. 


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Town  Houses — The  smaller  town  houses  of  the 
period  had  most  commonly  the  lower  vaulted  story 
of  stone  and  the  upper  part  of  wood-framing  as  may 
be  seen  at  Winchelsea,  where,  however,  the  original 
timber  upper  part  has  disappeared. 

PERPENDICULAR  (fifteenth  century) 

Important  Historical  Events — During  the  fifteenth 
century  many  new  influences  affected  the  social  con- 
dition of  the  people  and  naturally  left  their  mark 
on  the  architecture  of  the  time.  Most  powerful 
among  these  new  factors  were  the  Renaissance  in 
Italy,  the  dispersion  of  scholars  from  Constantinople, 
the  wider  establishment  of  scholastic  foundations  and 
the  invention  of  printing  with  its  consequent  increase 
of  knowledge  and  higher  standard  of  intelligence.  At 
the  same  time  that  this  increase  of  opportunities  gave 
the  people  a  wider  mental  outlook  the  use  of  the 
mariner's  compass  opened  up  distant  parts  of  the  world. 
Wealth  was  largely  increased  by  the  discovery  of  India 
and  America  and  by  the  progress  of  industrial  arts  ; 
while  the  commercial  classes  grew  in  importance 
through  the  establishing  of  Trade  Guilds  and  the 
granting  of  commercial  charters. 

Mention  must  also  be  made  of  the  effect  of  the  use 
of  gunpowder,  which  rendered  ancient  castles  obso- 
lete as  defensive  strongholds  and  thus  incidentally 
strengthened  the  power  of  the  Crown  against  the 
barons. 

There  was  also  a  gradual  reduction  in  the  number 
of  feudal  dependents  or  retainers,  for  the  duties  which 
to  a  large  extent  had  heretofore  been  performed  by 
them  were  now  carried  out  by  independent  craftsmen 
who  lived  in  dwellings  of  their  own  outside  the  castle. 


PERPENDICULAR  PERIOD 


17 


The  serfs  became  the  hired  labourers,  and  had 
greater  freedom  than  their  predecessors. 

Castles — The  castles  of  the  border  counties,  such 
as  Alnwick,  however,  still  retained  the  same  military 
character  owing  to  the  troubled  state  of  these  districts, 
so  that  the  Border  Manor-house  or  Pele  Tower  (see 
p.  11)  was  built  on  the  old  lines  even  as  late  as  the 
sixteenth  century. 

Warwick  Castle,  dating  from  the  end  of  the  four- 
teenth and  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
retained  features  which  before  the  invention  of  gun- 
powder must  have  rendered  it  wellnigh  impregnable. 
Among  these  were  the  portcullis,  which  we  believe  is 
still  used  every  night,  the  walls  of  enceinte^  the  battle- 
ments and  allures  behind  them,  bastions  and  machico- 
lations from  which  hot  tar,  stones  and  other  missiles 
could  be  dropped  on  the  besiegers. 

The  Hall,  as  in  other  examples  of  the  period,  had 
its  former  prominence  somewhat  diminished  by  the 
provision  of  separate  Dining-  and  Drawing-rooms. 

The  remains  of  Hurstmonceaux  Castle  (Sussex), 
Lumley  Castle  (Durham),  Warkworth  Castle  (North- 
umberland), Tattershall  Castle  (Lincolnshire)  are  other 
examples  which  date  from  this  period. 

Manor-houses — The  Manor-houses  of  the  period 
on  the  borders  of  Scotland  and  Wales,  although  still 
fortified  to  a  considerable  extent,  show  the  conflict 
between  the  increasino^  desire  for  domestic  comfort 

o 

and  the  occasional  necessity  for  resisting  attack.  The 
authority  of  the  Crown  and  increased  efficiency  of 
armaments  rendered  the  fortification  of  the  houses 
useless  ;  so  that  when  the  gatehouse,  battlements  and 
towers  of  the  earlier  period  were  still  retained,  they 
were  more  as  ornamental  features  than  for  defence. 
2 


i8  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


The  Entrance  Porch,  the  Screens  with  Minstrels' 
Gallery  above  and  the  brazier  in  the  centre  of  the  Hall 
were  still  sometimes  kept,  while  newer  features  were 
introduced,  such  as  the  large  bay  window  at  the  side 
of  the  dais,  and  the  wall  fireplace. 

The  Hall  no  longer  appears  to  have  been  used  as 
a  general  dormitory  in  this  century,  although  when  the 
house  was  crowded  on  special  occasions  the  retainers 
no  doubt  still  slept  upon  straw  laid  down  for  the 
purpose. 

Family  Apartments — The  Withdrawing-room  and  Lady's 
Bower,  which  in  the  previous  century  had  contained 
beds,  were  now  in  many  cases  reserved  entirely  as 
Sitting-rooms. 

The  Bedchambers,  such  as  the  Camera  (for  one 
bed),  Cubiculum  (for  two  or  three),  and  the  Dormi- 
torium  (for  many),  increased  in  number  as  the  Hall 
diminished  in  importance,  showing  a  desire  for  greater 
comfort  and  refinement. 

Wardrobe  Closets,  Washing -closets  (eweries)  and 
Cupboards  were  common  ;  the  latter  were  used  instead 
of  chests  and  lockers. 

The  Kitchen  and  Offices — The  Kitchen,  which  in  the 
previous  centuries  was  often  detached  from  the  main 
building,  was  now  for  greater  convenience  frequently 
connected  with  it.  Some  fine  examples  exist  at  Stan- 
ton Harcourt  (Oxfordshire),  New  College  (Oxford), 
Christ  Church  (Oxford),  Hampton  Court  and  Berkeley 
Castle. 

The  Buttery  and  Pantry  in  this  century  were  often 
formed  as  one,  hence  the  compound  term  Butler's 
Pantry.  The  word  buttery  is  still  used  in  collegiate 
establishments,  but  while  the  office  of  the  butler  is 
retained  that  of  the  pannetier  is  lost. 


PERPENDICULAR  PERIOD 


It  also  became  the  custom  to  provide  a  Scullery 
{scute liar iu77i),  Bakehouse  {pistrina),  Brewhouse,  Dairy 
and  Mill,  while  granaries  and  outbuildings  became 
more  numerous. 

Stables  were  sometimes  built  apart  round  a  special 
court  or  stable  yard. 

Furniture — Original  furniture  of  the  period  is  rarely 
seen,  and  our  knowledge  of  it  is  obtained  principally 
from  illustrated  manuscripts.  Chairs  were  not  com- 
monly used,  but  window  recesses  had  stone  benches 
on  each  side  such  as  still  exist  in  college  rooms  at 
the  Universities,  and  these  were  the  favourite  nooks 
and  corners  of  the  apartments. 

Tables  were  principally  formed  of  boards  and 
trestles,  and  chests  were  also  used  for  this  purpose. 

The  floors  were  still  covered  with  straw,  rushes  or 
matting  (see  pp.  lo  and  15),  carpets  not  having  yet 
come  into  general  use. 

Examples — Wolterton  Manor-house  at  East  Bar- 
sham  (Norfolk)  is  very  complete  as  an  example  of  the 
development  of  this  period.  It  has  a  fine  detached 
gatehouse,  while  the  main  building  contains  the 
Porch,  Screens  and  Hall  with  Bay  Windows.  The 
family  rooms  are  reached  from  the  dais  and  the 
Kitchen  and  Offices  from  the  Screens.  South 
Wraxall  Manor-house  and  Great  Chalfield  (both  in 
Wiltshire)  are  fine  examples  of  convenient  dwelling- 
houses  erected  in  a  peaceful  county,  with  scarcely  any 
attempt  at  fortification,  although  the  latter  house  is 
surrounded  by  a  moat. 

Oxburgh  Hall  (Norfolk),  a  moated  quadrangular 
example,^  Haddon  Hall  (Derbyshire),  with  a  double 

^  See  Plate  131  of  A  History  of  Architecture  on  the  Comparative 
Method  (5th  Edition)  for  a  plan  of  this  house. 


20  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

Court  partly  built  in  the  Elizabethan  period,  Hever 
Castle  (Kent),  a  castellated  moated  house,  and  Ock- 
wells  (near  Windsor)  are  other  examples  of  the 
change  from  the  older  fortified  castle  to  the  newer 
and  more  fully  developed  dwelling-house. 

The  Bishop's  Palace,  Wells,  is  an  ecclesiastical 
structure  which  still  has  its  separate  wall  of  enceinte, 
with  gatehouse  and  moat. 

Town  Houses — The  smaller  Town  Houses  under- 
went considerable  improvement  ;  but  as  they  were 
mostly  constructed  of  wood,  few  remain,  although 
some  are  still  to  be  seen  in  Coventry,  in  the  Butcher 
Row  at  Shrewsbury,  in  Chester  and  other  old  towns. 

Peasants'  Dwellings — The  Peasants'  Dwellings  prob- 
ably showed  little  improvement  on  the  preceding  cen- 
turies, as  in  many  cases  they  merely  consisted  of  a 
single  apartment  used  as  living-room  and  bedroom 
by  the  whole  family.  The  accommodation  appears 
to  have  improved  in  the  latter  part  of  the  century, 
when  the  dwellings  may  have  resembled  the  Irish 
Cabins  of  the  present  day,  which  frequently  have  two 
rooms  separated  by  the  chimney-stack. 

TUDOR  (first  half  of  sixteenth  century) 

The  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  and  the 
first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  were  remarkable 
for  that  phase  of  national  architecture  known  as 
Tudor.  During  this  period  there  was  a  growing 
demand  for  houses  for  the  new  and  wealthy  trading 
families,  which  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII  were 
taking  the  place  of  the  old  nobility,  many  of  whom 
had  disappeared  during  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  between 
the  years  1455  and  1485.  The  suppression  of  the 
monasteries  (a.d.  1536-40)  enabled  Henry  VIII  to 


TUDOR  PERIOD 


distribute  vast  sums  of  money  and  great  tracts  of  land 
among  his  courtiers,  many  of  whom  were  also  rich 
and  prosperous  citizens,  who  gratified  their  ambition 
as  landed  proprietors  by  the  erection  of  houses  suit- 
able to  their  newly  acquired  rank. 

Manor-houses — The  Tudor  Manor-house  of  the 
sixteenth  century  was  a  continuance  of  the  fifteenth- 
century  type  ;  the  rooms  were  grouped  round  a  quad- 
rangular Court,  as  at  Compton  Wynyates  (Warwick- 
shire) and  Sutton  Place  (Guildford).  The  typical 
examples  have  battlemented  parapets  which,  although 
no  longer  useful  for  defence,  were  still  retained  as 
ornamental  features.  The  entrance  to  the  Courtyard 
was  usually  in  the  centre  of  one  side  under  a  gate- 
house which  gave  it  prominence.  On  the  opposite 
side  of  the  Court  was  the  entrance  porch  leading  to 
the  Screens  and  Hall,  while  the  various  living-rooms 
and  offices  were  rano^ed  alonof  the  two  remaininof 
sides.  Such  rooms  were  usually  thoroughfare " 
rooms,  and  in  some  cases  were  also  entered  from 
the  Courtyard. 

The  Great  Hall  (see  pp.  4,  9,  11,  and  18)  declined 
still  further  in  importance,  pari  passu  with  the  state 
and  grandeur  of  the  hereditary  landowner,  but  it  was 
still  the  principal  apartment  and  formed  the  central 
feature  of  the  plan.  Its  decrease  in  size  was  in  some 
measure  due  to  the  reduction  of  the  number  of 
military  retainers  by  legal  enactment,  and  also  to  the 
fact  that  many  industries  formerly  carried  on  in  the 
feudal  house  were  transferred  to  craftsmen  who  lived 
and  worked  in  the  village  instead  of  in  the  great 
house.  The  better  accommodation  provided  by  inns 
may  also  have  contributed  to  this  change. 

The  side  fireplace  with  its  richly  carved  overmantel 


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was  now  fast  developing  into  an  important  decorative 
feature,  and  was  indeed  generally  used  in  all  the 
principal  rooms. 

Family  Apartments — In  addition  to  the  Withdrawing- 
room  and  the  Lady's  Bower  (Boudoir),  the  Study, 
the  Private  Dining-room,  the  Summer  and  Winter 
Parlours  are  also  mentioned  in  connection  with  some 
of  the  larger  houses.  Bedchambers  were  more  plenti- 
fully provided,  and  in  some  instances  would  certainly 
have  been  considered  sufficient  for  our  own  day.  Hen- 
grave  Hall  (Suffolk)  (a.d.  1538)  had  no  fewer  than 
forty  bedrooms. 

Generally  speaking,  rooms  still  continued  to  be 
thoroughfare  rooms,  although  in  Hengrave  Hall  we 
find  a  corridor  introduced  round  the  internal  court. 
The  ceilings  of  the  Hall  and  Living-rooms  were 
frequently  ornamented  with  richly  moulded  plaster 
ribs  dividing  the  surfaces  into  panels  of  various 
shapes. 

Furniture — It  is  very  difficult  to  trace  authentic 
examples  of  the  Tudor  furniture  of  this  period,  but 
there  are  notable  exceptions  with  regard  to  that 
appertaining  to  some  of  the  churches,  which  are  often 
still  found  in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  such  as  the 
choir  stalls  of  Christchurch,  Hampshire, 

Kitchen  and  Offices — The  offices  increased  in  num- 
ber, and  the  inventory  of  Hengrave  Hall  mentions 
many  new  uses  to  which  they  were  assigned.  Thus 
we  read  of  the  Hind's  Hall,  Kitchen,  Pantry, 
Dry  and  Wet  Larders,  Pastry-room,  Scouring-house, 
Still-houses,  Laundry  and  Linen  Room,  Wardrobe, 
Wine-cellar,  Outer  Cellar,  Dairy,  Cheese-room,  Brew- 
house,  Bakehouse,  Malthouse,  Hophouse,  Fish-house 
and  many  others. 


TUDOR  PERIOD  23 

From  this  list  it  will  be  seen  that  many  offices  were 
provided  which  in  these  days  would  not  be  necessary, 
owing  to  the  ease  of  communication  and  accessibility 
to  external  sources  of  supply. 

Gardens — Gardens  were  laid  out  in  accordance  with 
simple  theories,  based  upon  a  definite  plan  em- 
bracing some  architectural  design  in  the  way  of  steps, 
balustraded  terraces  and  the  like.  A  Bowling-green 
was  often  introduced  into  the  gardens  attached  to  the 
larger  houses. 

Examples — ComptonWynyates(Warwickshire)(A.D. 
1520)  consists  of  a  complete  quadrangle,  entered  on 
one  side  through  a  gateway  opposite  to  the  door  of 
the  screens  on  the  other  side  of  the  Court.  The 
lofty  Hall  has  a  fine  bay  window,  and  there  are  several 
staircases,  the  principal  one  being  added  in  a  later 
period.  This  is  a  picturesque  example  in  which  there 
is  considerable  irregularity  of  disposition,  especially  in 
the  case  of  the  entrance,  which  is  not  central  to  the 
court  or  facade. 

Sutton  Place,  Guildford  (a.d.  1523-5),  is  another 
example  of  the  quadrangular  type,  but  the  en- 
trance side  has  been  removed.  There  was  more 
attempt  at  symmetry  in  this  example,  for  the  en- 
trance to  the  Hall  is  on  the  axial  line,  and  an 
extra  bay  window  was  placed  in  the  angle  of  the 
Courtyard  to  balance  the  Hall  bay  at  the  corre- 
sponding angle.  The  rooms  round  the  Court  must 
have  been  thoroughfare  rooms  in  this  example,  as 
no  space  exists  for  a  passage  or  corridor.  The 
windows  are  still  cusped  in  the  late  Perpendicular 
manner,  and  the  battlemented  parapet  is  a  feature 
of  the  design. 

Hengrave  Hall  (Suffolk)  (a.d.  1538)  also  supplies  an 


24  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


early  example  of  special  planning  to  produce  a  sym- 
metrical fa9ade. 

Layer  Marney  Towers,  Essex  (a.d.  1500-26),  a 
terra-cotta  building ;  Moreton  Old  Hall,  Cheshire 
(a.d.  1559),  a  half-timbered  structure,  and  many 
smaller  houses  in  the  towns  and  provinces  may  be 
attributed  to  this  period. 

THE    EARLY    RENAISSANCE  PERIOD: 

Elizabethan  and  Jacobean  (the  latter 
half  of  sixteenth  century  and  first  half 
of  seventeenth  century) 

Next  come  the  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean  styles, 
v^hich  together  form  a  transitional  type  of  art  con- 
necting the  Tudor  style  with  the  Anglo-Classic  art 
of  Inigo  Jones.  The  Elizabethan  style  coincides  with 
the  final  settlement  of  the  Reformation  by  Elizabeth, 
the  patriotic  outburst  caused  by  the  defeat  of  the 
Spanish  Armada  in  a.d.  1588,  and  the  literary  period 
of  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  Burleigh  and  Sir  Philip 
Sidney. 

The  settlement  of  foreign  craftsmen  in  England, 
caused  by  the  massacre  of  S.  Bartholomew  (a.d.  1572), 
also  helped  to  introduce  the  new  form  of  architectural 
art  as  practised  for  some  time  previously  in  France. 

The  first  English  book  on  the  new  style  of 
architecture,  as  it  was  called,  was  published  in  a.d. 
1563  by  John  Shute  on  his  return  from  Italy. 

The  Country  Mansions — The  period  is  specially  re- 
markable for  the  erection  of  a  large  number  of  country 
residences  in  which  many  Gothic  features,  such  as 
mullioned  windows,  towers,  oriels  and  large  chimney- 
stacks,  were  retained,  but  were  ornamented  with  Re- 
naissance detail. 


EARLY  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD  25 


Two  general  types  of  plan  were  in  use.  The 
smaller  type,  derived  from  the  simple  mediaeval 
manor-house,  consisted  as  before  of  a  Hall  placed 
centrally  with  Kitchen  and  offices  at  one  end  and 
family  apartments  at  the  other.  The  larger  type 
was  evolved  from  the  quadrangular  mediaeval  plan, 
which  the  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean  architects  modi- 
fied by  omitting   one  side.      This   resulted  in  an 


mmm  nm^  iplm  m%T  n®m  mm 

Ills.  4  and  5.    Hatfield  House,  Herts. 


"  E  "-shaped  plan,  securing  sunlight  and  a  freer 
circulation  of  air  into  the  Court,  as  at  Hatfield  House 
(Ills.  4  and  5). 

The  "  H  "-shaped  plan  was  evolved  by  extending 
the  wings  as  at  Holland  House,  London  (111.  6). 

Other  fanciful  plans  showing  extreme  originality 
were  also  employed,  as,  e.g.,  Longford  Castle,  a  tri- 
angular house  attributed  to  John  Thorpe. 

The  Hall — The  Great  Hall  was  not  universal  in 
this  period,  and  even  when  found  does  not  occupy 
such  a  disproportionate  space  as  formerly,  being,  in 
fact,  retained  from  the  mediaeval  period  in  order  to 
give  a  certain  state  and  dignity  to  the  house,  although 
the  spirit  and  meaning  of  its  old  character  had  de- 
parted. 

The  old  college  Halls  of  the  Universities  and  the 
Inns  of  Court  of  London  still  retain  the  old  arrange- 


26  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


ment  with  dais  and  high  table,  but  these  would  appear 
to  have  had  their  origin  in  early  monastic  institutions 
and  not  in  the  feudal  system  which  produced  the  Hall 
of  the  mediaeval  period. 

The  Hall  was  usually  lined  to  a  height  of  eight  or 
ten  feet  with  oak  panelling,  while  above  were  arranged 
the  trophies  of  the  chase,  armour,  ancestral  portraits, 
family  relics  and  heirlooms. 


III.  6.    Plans  and  Elevation  of  Holland  House,  Kensington. 


The  carved  oak  screen  and  Minstrels'  Gallery,  the 
raised  dais  and  lofty  bay  windows,  the  imposing  fire- 
place richly  carved  with  the  owner's  coat-of-arms, 
and  the  ornamental  plaster  ceiling  are  well-known 
features. 

The  staircases — Staircases  are  important  because  the 
chief  living-rooms,  which  were  frequently  on  the  first 
floor,  demanded  an  easy  means  of  approach,  and 
they  are  numerous  because  the  Hall  was  frequently 


EARLY  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD  27 


two  stories  in  height,  thus  dividing  the  upper  floors 
into  two  parts,  access  to  which  was  only  obtained  by 
separate  staircases.  They  are  generally  placed  in 
connection  with  the  Hall,  and  with  their  heavily 
carved  newels,  pierced  balustrading  and  rich  carving 
give  an  air  of  spaciousness  and  dignity  to  the  in- 
terior. 

The  Long  Gallery — There  is  no  feature  more  charac- 
teristic of  the  period  than  the  Long  Gallery  from 
which  the  modern  term  picture  gallery  appears  to 
be  derived.  Their  origin  is  doubtful,  but  they  may 
have  been  used  for  exercise  or  for  the  display  of 
objects  of  art ;  for  the  fashionable  pastime  of  ''collect- 
ing "  seems  to  have  commenced  about  this  period. 
They  undoubtedly  sometimes  served  as  a  means  of 
communication  between  the  wings  of  the  upper  floors 
of  the  house,  when  the  Hall  was  two  stories  in  height. 
They  were  situated  on  the  upper  floor,  and  often 
extended  the  whole  length  of  the  house.  The  pro- 
portions of  the  Long  Gallery  vary  from  those  of  the 
Great  Hall,  in  being  comparatively  low  and  narrow 
in  proportion  to  their  length.  This  effect,  however, 
was  frequently  relieved  by  projecting  room-like  bays, 
like  those  at  H addon  Hall,  which  are  as  much  as 
fifteen  feet  by  twelve  feet. 

The  walls  usually  had  oak  panelling  for  their  full 
height,  and  the  plaster  ceilings  were  richly  modelled.^ 

Family  Apartments — The  Dining,  Withdrawing-room, 
Chapel,  Bedrooms  and  offices  were  based  on  those 
of  the  mediaeval  period,  but  arranged  with  greater 
regard  to  convenience. 

^  For  lists  and  dimensions  of  some  Elizabethan  Galleries,  see  A 
History  of  Architecture  on  the  Comparative  Method  (5th  Edition), 
P-  555- 


28 


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Furniture — The  oak  furniture,  chairs,  tables,  side- 
boards, chests  and  bedsteads  of  the  period  form  very 
important  features  of  the  house,  being  constructed 
in  the  prevaiHng  architectural  style,  and  therefore 
adding  to  the  unity  and  completeness  of  the  general 
desiofn. 

Carpets  appear  to  have  been  imported  from  Turkey 
and  to  have  come  into  oeneral  use  in  the  reig^n  of 
Elizabeth. 

The  Formal  Garden — The  art  of  Italian  landscape  gar- 
dening now  made  its  influence  felt  in  the  planning 
of  the  Formal  Garden.  This  was  set  as  a  frame 
round  the  more  important  houses,  and  with  its  series 
of  forecourts,  parterres,  arcades,  fountains  and  ter- 
races it  gave  a  complete  and  finished  appearance  to 
the  house. 

Examples  —  Amongst  well  -  known  examples  of 
Elizabethan  and  Jacobean  houses  are  Kirby  (North- 
ants),  A.D.  1570-5  ;  Knole  (Kent),  a.d.  1570  ;  Burghley 
(Northants),  a.d.  1575-89;  Hardwick  Hall  (Derby- 
shire), A.D.  1576-97;  Longleat  (Wilts),  a.d.  1567; 
Bramshill  (Hants),  a.d.  1607-12  ;  and  Hatfield  House 
(Herts),  A.D.  161 1. 

The  Charterhouse  and  the  Inns  of  Court  in 
London,  the  Colleges  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
already  referred  to  on  page  25,  are  also  good  ex- 
amples. Sir  Paul  Pindar's  house,  the  front  of  which 
is  now  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  is  a  fine 
specimen  of  a  small  town  facade. 


LATE  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD  29 


THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD :  Anglo- 
Classic,  Queen  Anne  and  Georgian  (the 
latter  half  of  seventeenth  century  and 
eighteenth  century) 

During  this  period  the  influence  of  the  work  of 
Palladio  on  the  great  English  architect,  Inigo  Jones, 
resulted  in  a  breaking  away  from  the  English  model  ; 
so  much  so  that  the  new  style  is  termed  Palladian  " 
and  resulted  in  an  architectural  revolution,  such  as 
was  effected  by  Brunelleschi  in  Italy. 

The  "Orders  of  Architecture"  were  used  to  give 
importance  and  dignity,  and  were  employed  in  the 
smaller  houses  in  the  entrance  doorways,  fireplaces 
and  wall-surfaces,  etc. 

The  fireplace  with  open  dog-grate,  after  Jacobean 
models,  was  often  richly  treated  with  columns,  while 
the  overmantel  had  carved  festoons  with  coat-of-arms, 
the  whole  design  being  in  harmony  with  the  treat- 
ment of  the  walls. 

Architecture  was  also  to  a  certain  extent  taken  up 
as  a  fashionable  study,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  erection 
by  the  Earl  of  Burlington  of  the  well-known  villa  at 
Chiswick,  which  was  a  copy  of  the  Villa  Rotonda 
at  Vicenza  by  Palladio.  It  is  an  Italian  country 
house  quite  unsuited  to  the  English  climate,  and  has 
had  no  effect  on  the  traditional  architecture  of  this 
country. 

Anglo-Classic  Period :  The  Country   Mansions — A 

large  number  of  mansions  were  erected  which  exhibit 
a  stateliness  and  grandeur  well  suited  to  their  purpose 
as  country  seats  for  the  English  nobility,  although 
the  practical  requirements  of  domestic  convenience 
were  still  frequently  ignored. 


so 


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III.  7. 


Stoke  Park,  Northants. 


The  "  E  "  and  "  H  "  shaped  plans  of  the  preceding 
period  were  now  superseded  by  the  Italian  type  of 

plan  introduced  by  Inigo 
Jones,  as  evidenced  in  his 
design  for  Stoke  Park 
(111.  7),  which  consists  of 
a  central  block  containing 
the  principal  apartments, 
which  were  placed  above 
a  basement  story.  These 
rooms  were  reached  by  an  external  flight  of  steps. 

On  either  side  of  this  central  block  were  wings 
containing  the  Kitchens,  offices,  and  Stables  frequently 
connected  to  the  main  building  by  colonnades. 

The  principal  entrance  was  sometimes  provided 
with  a  two-storied  portico,  which,  however,  is  un- 
suitable to  the  English  climate,  as  it  causes  the  rooms 
behind  to  be  dark  and  unhealthy,  and  so  it  has  in 
many  cases  been  removed. 

The  Elizabethan  Hall  was  succeeded  by  a  thorough- 
fare room  forming  the  Entrance  Hall,  as  seen  at 
A  in  111.  8. 

Behind  the  Entrance  Hall  was  the  Saloon,  an  Italian 
modification  for  country  villas  of  the  open  cortile  of 
the  larger  town  palazzi,  and  this  often  formed  a  large 
apartment  in  the  centre  of  the  garden  fa9ade,  with  the 
principal  living-rooms  ranged  on  either  side  (see  B  in 
111.  8)  ;  such  rooms  were  sometimes  octagonal  or 
circular  on  plan. 

Examples — Inigo  Jones  designed  Raynham  Hall, 
Norfolk  (a.d.  1630),  the  Queen's  House,  Greenwich 
(a.d.  1639),  Coleshill,  Berks  (a.d.  1650),  and  Chevening 
House,  Kent  (since  destroyed). 

Sir  Christopher  Wren  continued  the  same  ideas 


LATE  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD  31 

of  planning-,  but  his  designs  were  principally  of  the 
central  block  type.  Amongst  his  reputed  domestic 
works  are  Groombridge  Place,  Kent ;  Belton  House, 
near  Grantham  (a.d.  1689),  and  Marlborough  House, 
London  (a.d.  1698),  with  wings  added  later;  besides 
considerable  additions  to  Kensinoton  Palace  and 
Hampton  Court. 


III.  8.    Plan  Section  and  Elevation  of  Castle  Howard, 
Yorkshire. 


Queen  Anne  and  Georgian  Period :  The  Country 
Mansions— A  laro^e  number  of  mansions  were  erected 
in  the  eighteenth  century  by  later  architects,  among 
whom  may  be  mentioned  Nicholas  Hawksmoor, 
Sir  John  Vanbrugh,  William  Talman,  William  Kent, 
John  Carr  of  York,  Colin  Campbell,  Isaac  Ware, 
George  Dance,  the  Brothers  Adam,  John  Wood 
of  Bath,  Sir  William  Chambers  and  many  others. 

The  Italian  type  of  plan  still  prevailed,  the  Entrance 


32 


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Hall  and  Saloon  forming  the  nucleus  of  the  central 
block,  which  contained  also  the  principal  living-apart- 
ments. 

Winers  on  either  side  containino-  Stables  and 
Kitchens  were  still  arrano^ed  as  at  Castle  Howard 
(111.  8),  but  sometimes  also  four  wings  were  ar- 
ranged symmetrically  as  at  Holkham  Hall  (111.  9) 
and  Kedlestone  Hall. 

The  Jacobean  Long  Gallery  still  survived  in  a 
modified  form  in  some  of  the  larger  houses,  as  at 
Holkham  and  Blenheim. 

Little  advance  was  made  with  regard  to  privacy 
and  the  convenient  arrangement  of  the  apartments, 
for  corridors  are  seldom  found  and  thoroughfare 
rooms  were  usual. 

Compactness  was  frequently  not  much  studied,  the 
Kitchen  in  the  East  Wing  at  Blenheim  being  one 
hundred  yards  from  the  nearest  Dining-room ! 

The  accommodation  shows  an  improvement  on  that 
given  in  the  account  of  H engrave  Hall,  and  begins 

p.,r^l«  to  accord  more  with 


modern  ideas.  The 


Dining    and  Draw- 


mor-rooms,  w 


hich 


are 


henceforward  com- 
mon   to   all  homes, 
'^©LfflAM  H1MUI>®~'^''^    are  supplemented  in 

III.  9.    First-floor  Plan  of  Holkham    the    larger  examples 
Hall,  Norfolk.  ^j^j^  Morning-rooms, 

Libraries,  Business  -  rooms,  Boudoirs,  Ball-rooms, 
Music-rooms,  Billiard-rooms  and  Conservatories. 

Bedrooms  were  again  increased  in  number,  and 
occasionally  they  were  grouped  for  visitors  in  a 
separate  wing,  as  at  Holkham  (111.  9). 


LATE  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD  33 

Staircases  leading  to  the  Bedrooms  on  the  upper 
floor  were  usually  symmetrical  (111.  8),  on  either  side 
of  the  Entrance  Hall,  and  the  various  apartments 
were  grouped  with  special  regard  to  symmetry  and 
stateliness  at  the  expense  of  practical  utility  and  con- 
venience. 

Pope  satirized  this  prevailing  idea  in  the  following- 
lines  : — 

"  'Tis  very  fine. 
But  where  d'ye  sleep,  or  where  d'ye  dine  ? 
I  find  by  all  you  have  been  telling 
That  'tis  a  house  and  not  a  dwelling." 

The  modern  science  of  sanitation  was  still  in  a  very 
backward  state  ;  the  supply  of  lavatories  and  bath- 
rooms was  limited,  and  such  as  existed  were  badly 
placed,  insufficiently  ventilated  and  inadequately 
drained. 

Formal  Gardens — These  houses  of  the  late  Renais- 
sance were  surrounded  by  formal  gardens  laid  out  on 
geometrical  lines  ornamented  with  sculptured  figures 
and  vases  and  with  flights  of  steps  and  fountains, 
forming  an  ideal  setting  for  a  country  house. 

Examples — Many  of  these  mansions  are  illustrated 
in  the  volumes  of  the  Vitrztvms  Britannicus  and  indi- 
cate a  passion  for  symmetry,  together  with  a  waste  of 
space  and  inconvenience  of  disposition  ;  but  no  one 
can  deny  the  magnificent  eflect  of  many  of  these 
stately  compositions. 

Castle  Howard,  Yorkshire  (111.  8),  Blenheim  Palace 
(Oxfordshire),  which  is  peculiar  in  having  internal 
courts,  Seaton  Delaval  (Northumberland),  all  have 
detached  wings  containing  Kitchens,  Stabling,  etc., 
with  two  connecting  portions  of  quadrant  forms  treated 
as  colonnades.  Holkham  Hall,  Norfolk  (111.  9),  and 
3 


34  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

Kedlestone  Hall  (Derbyshire)  are  larger  examples 
with  four  detached  wings. 

Examples  of  the  smaller  country  mansions  which 
have  no  wings  are  Melton  Constable  (Norfolk), 
Eltham  House  (Kent),  Thorpe  Hall  (near  Peter- 
borough), Honington  Hall  (Warwickshire). 

The  Smaller  Houses — A  large  number  of  the  smaller 
houses  for  the  rapidly  increasing  middle  class  were 
erected  in  and  around  London  and  almost  every 
provincial  town  ;  and  their  simple  and  practical  plans 
are  in  striking  contrast  with  the  stately  and  grandiose 
mansions  we  have  already  dealt  with. 

These  smaller  houses,  frequently  occupied  now- 
adays by  the  country  doctor  or  solicitor,  are  usually 
of  the  block  type,  approximating  either  to  a  square  or 
double  square  on  plan.  The  centre  third  of  the  house 
is  usually  occupied  by  the  Outer  Hall,  staircase  and 
Inner  Hall  ;  and  on  either  side  of  this  central  portion 
are  arranged  the  various  rooms  and  offices. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  smaller  Queen  Anne 
and  Georgian  house  has  often  been  described  in  the 
novels  of  Thackeray,  Dickens  and  others. 

It  is  frequently  set  back  from  the  road  behind 
simple  iron  railings,  and  consists  of  a  long,  straight 
two-storied  front  raised  upon  a  basement  containing 
the  Kitchen  and  offices. 

The  principal  features  are  the  sash-windows  sym- 
metrically arranged  with  stout  wooden  bars  (see  p.  64, 
111.  20),  the  central  doorway  with  side  consoles,  entab- 
lature and  pediment,  displaying  the  owner's  coat-of- 
arms,  and  a  boldly  projecting  consoled  cornice  protect- 
ing the  walls  from  the  frequent  showers  of  this  rain- 
swept country. 

The  house  is  generally  crowned  with  a  plain  hipped 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  35 


roof,  with  simple  dormer  windows  which  complete  the 
ensemble  of  an  unpretentious  work  of  art  in  conso- 
nance with  eighteenth-century  civilization. 

Many  of  the  smaller  examples  in  towns,  owing  to 
the  cost  of  land,  are  attached  buildings,  and  depend 
mainly  on  the  distribution  of  their  windows  and  well- 
proportioned  entrance  doorways  for  effect. 

Furniture — Walnut  was  much  used  for  furniture 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
the  effect  of  the  Restoration  and  Dutch  influence,  is 
evidenced  in  the  designs.  Mahogany  appears  to  have 
replaced  walnut  for  furniture  about  a.d.  1720.  Chip- 
pendale in  the  first  half  and  Heppelwhite  and  Shera- 
ton in  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
continued  the  traditional  methods  of  craftsmanship, 
combined  with  sturdy  Renaissance  columns  and  scrolls 
in  harmony  with  the  architecture  of  the  period. 

The  system  of  veneering  also  came  into  general 
use,  and  the  preference  for  classical  designs  affected 
even  the  most  ordinary  pieces  of  furniture,  and  pro- 
duced in  the  latter  part  of  this  period  and  the  first 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  what  has  been 
called  the  Composite  Age. 

MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  (nineteenth 

AND  TWENTIETH  CENTURIES) 

The  Break-up  of  Tradition--The  nineteenth  century 
was  in  the  main  a  century  of  revivals  of  past  styles 
of  architecture,  and  was  remarkable  for  the  break-up 
of  tradition,  due  in  large  measure  to  the  prevailing 
freedom  of  thought  and  desire  to  evade  the  restraint 
of  authority. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  century  the  traditional 
Georgian  art  was  in  vogue,  but  this  gave  way  to  the 


36  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

Greek,  Gothic  (Tudor)  and  Elizabethan  styles,  which 
were  employed  successively  and  indiscriminately  in 
domestic  architecture,  and  resulted  in  the  great  con- 
fusion known  as  the  Battle  of  the  Styles,  in  which 
classic  principles,  based  on  regularity,  stateliness  and 
balance  of  parts,  were  opposed  to  the  Gothic  prin- 
ciples based  on  irregularity,  unfettered  freedom  and 
convenience. 

The  Greek  Revival — During  the  years  a.d.  1750- 
1825,  Homer  and  the  Greek  authors  usurped  the 
pedestals  of  the  Latin  authors,  which  had  held  sway 
since  the  Renaissance.  This  produced  an  enthusiasm 
for  Greek  literature  and  art,  which  was  emphasized 
by  the  publication  of  Stuart  and  Revett's  Antiquities 
of  Athens  and  other  works.  The  importation  (a.d. 
1 80 1-3)  of  the  Elgin  Marbles  from  the  Parthenon  at 
Athens  also  assisted  in  this  direction. 

The  Greek  Revival,  however,  had  little  or  no  effect 
on  the  planning  of  domestic  buildings,  for  not  even 
the  fervour  of  the  Revivalists  could  make  people  bold 
enough  to  adopt  the  Pompeian  classical  type  of  plan. 

Frequent  sacrifices  of  convenience  were,  however, 
still  demanded,  in  order  to  comply  with  that  general 
principle  of  regularity  which  was  required,  especially 
in  the  larger  houses,  which  were  still  provided  with 
small  wings  for  extra  accommodation. 

Domestic  offices  were  still  in  the  Basement,  but 
were  eventually  brought  to  the  ground  floor,  even 
when  the  Basement  was  retained  for  cellar  purposes. 

The  villas  of  Regent's  Park,  London,  by  Nash,  are 
familiar  examples,  and  some  of  them  are  on  quite  a 
large  scale,  although  executed  with  stucco-faced  walls 
which  have  been  held  up  to  scorn. 
The  Gothic  (Tudor)  Revival— The  changes  of  politics 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  37 

and  the  cessation  of  the  land  and  sea  wars  that  had 
engaged  the  forces  of  Europe  from  1789-1815  tended 
to  bring  about  a  change  in  the  ideas  of  Europeans 
between  the  years  18  15  and  1850. 

The  study  of  the  Middle  Ages,  owing  to  the  writ- 
ings of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Goethe  and  Victor  Hugo, 
became  fashionable,  and  this  helped  to  produce  the 
Gothic  Revival  in  art,  which  was  aided,  in  a.d.  1819, 
by  Rickman's  "Attempt  to  discriminate  the  Gothic 
styles."  The  writings  of  Pugin,  Brandon,  Britton  and 
others  also  helped  forward  the  movement. 

In  the  first  instance,  the  revival  seems  to  have  been 
brought  about  by  a  desire  to  produce  the  decorative 
treatment  of  the  Gothic  style,  but  the  chief  reason 
which  caused  the  Tudor  style  to  be  used  was  its 
adaptability  of  plan  to  modern  requirements. 

Attention  was  also  ably  drawn  to  the  Gothic  period 
by  Sir  Charles  Barry's  designs  for  the  Houses  of 
Parliament,  in  which  a  stately  classic  plan  was  clothed 
with  a  Tudor  dress. 

The  Elizabethan  Revival — A  somewhat  later  phase, 
still  on  the  same  lines  as  regards  the  plan,  was  the 
Elizabethan  revival  which  was  a  reversion  to  an 
eminently  useful  and  national  type  of  art. 

This  revival  answered  the  practical  requirements  of 
everyday  life,  in  which  convenience  entirely  governed 
the  design,  and  symmetry  was  not  considered  essen- 
tial, except  so  far  as  it  resulted  from  the  requirements 
of  the  plan,  which  still,  however,  continued  in  many 
instances  to  follow  the  old  Georgian  type. 

Conclusion — To  attempt,  however,  to  enumerate  even 
a  selection  of  the  types  of  houses  erected  during  the 
nineteenth  and  commencement  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
turies would,  of  course,  be  impossible.    The  principles 


38  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

of  plan  as  now  established  lay  great  stress  on  the 
hygienic  distribution  of  the  various  apartments  and 
the  special  attention  given  to  sanitary  requirements 
(see  chap,  iii.,  p.  46). 

The  convenience  and  completeness  of  the  domestic 
departments — due,  no  doubt,  to  the  servant  problem 
— also  form  a  conspicuous  motif  in  modern  house 
plans.  The  reader  is  referred  to  examples  by  modern 
architects  illustrated  and  described  in  chapter  xviii., 
page  246. 

In  whatever  style — Greek,  Gothic  or  Renaissance 
— the  architect  works,  he  should  use  it  in  an  eclectic 
manner  so  as  to  answer  the  requirements  of  his  client, 
and  he  should  not  be  fettered  by  style,  if  it  does  not 
coincide  with  convenience. 

A  brief  review  has  now  been  made  of  the  various 
stages  of  development  by  which  the  Englishman's 
home  has  attained  that  degree  of  comfort  which  is 
acknowledged  to  be  unrivalled  throughout  the  world. 
We  will  now  deal  in  detail  with  the  making  of  a 
modern  home. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  srrE 

Where  to  Live — A  Healthy  Site— Subsoil  Drainage — Kinds  of  Soil — 
Position  of  Site — Points  to  consider  in  selecting  a  Site. 

WHERE  to  Live— The  first  problem  to  be 
solved  in  the  choice  of  a  site  is  whether  to 
live  in  town,  suburb  or  country. 
If  one  decides  to  live  either  in  a  suburb  or  in  the 
country  and  has  to  go  to  business  every  day  in  town, 
a  orood  service  of  trains  or  a  motor-car  is  essential  ; 
but  on  the  other  hand  if  only  occasional  visits  to  town 
are  necessary,  the  above  desiderata  are  not  so  im- 
portant, and  consequently  there  is  a  wider  range  in 
the  choice  of  a  site. 

Some  people  may  own  more  than  one  residence, 
but  such  are  by  no  means  necessarily  the  happiest  of 
mortals,  and  the  owner  of  a  comfortable  house,  care- 
fully planned  and  erected  in  simple  taste  upon  a  well- 
selected  site,  need  envy  no  one  his  numerous  pieds-a- 
terre. 

A  flat  in  London  and  a  little  place  in  the  country 
is  considered  by  many  an  ideal  arrangement,  but  those 
who  have  tried  it  know  that  it  has  numerous  dis- 
advantages, and  the  question  of  servants  frequently 
makes  it  extravagant  and  unsatisfactory.  It  means, 
moreover,  the  duplication  of  many  personal  neces- 
saries, and  considerable  irritation  may  be  caused  by 

39 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


finding  that  things  are  in  one  house  when  they  are 
required  in  the  other. 

A  Healthy  Site — Healthy  conditions  and  surround- 
ings are  the  first  essentials  for  any  site,  for  no  amount 
of  care  in  the  construction  of  a  house  will  altoQfether 
avail  if  its  situation  is  unhealthy.  In  many  cases 
selection  is  not  possible  and  some  particular  spot  may 
have  to  be  utilized.  Then  it  is  especially  necessary 
to  turn  the  peculiar  circumstances  to  the  best  advan- 
tage, and  it  may  save  many  heartburnings  later  on 
if  an  architect  be  consulted  early  in  the  matter. 

The  healthiness  of  the  site  depends  largely  on  its 
surroundings,  the  nature  of  the  subsoil,  vegetation 
and  sources  of  contamination  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 
In  addition,  the  temperature,  rainfall,  moisture  of  soil 
and  the  nature  of  the  prevailing  winds  materially 
affect  it.  The  general  climatic  conditions  of  a  dis- 
trict cannot  be  altered,  but  they  may  be  modified 
by  drainage  and  by  the  judicious  plantation  or  re- 
moval of  trees.  Many  diseases  such  as  phthisis  and 
affections  of  the  respiratory  system,  including  bron- 
chitis, pneumonia  and  whooping-cough,  appear  to  be 
derived  from  or  fostered  by  dampness,  which  is  also 
conducive  to  rheumatism,  neuralgia  and  catarrhs. 

All  authorities  aoree  that  the  condition  which 
principally  governs  the  healthiness  of  a  soil  is  the 
relation  which  the  ground  air  (i.e.  air  in  the  soil)  bears 
to  the  ground  water  (i.e.  moisture  in  the  soil),  and  this 
depends  mainly  upon  the  rainfall,  which  varies  greatly 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The  principal  evil 
is  damp,  caused  by  the  evaporation  of  the  moisture  in 
the  soil,  which  lowers  the  temperature  of  the  air  and 
is  therefore  injurious.  This  moisture  is  bound  to 
rise,  unless  the  level  of  the  ground  water  is  kept 


THE  SITE 


41 


sufficiently  below  its  surface  ;  for  the  lower  the  water 
is  in  the  soil  the  less  the  evaporation  and  the  warmer 
the  adjacent  air. 

Subsoil  Drainage — Subsoil  drainage  facilitates  the 
passage  of  the  surface  water  into  the  ground  beneath, 
and  thus  reduces  the  amount  of  the  evaporation.  This 
is  usually  effected  by  means  of  unglazed,  unjointed 
agricultural  drain-pipes,  butted  against  each  other,  and 
generally  placed  about  three  feet  six  inches  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground  with  a  good  fall  to  a  ditch, 
stream  or  river.  The  lines  of  pipes  are  placed  at 
distances  which  vary  from  three  feet  to  six  feet  apart, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  for  it  is  obvious 
that  in  a  sandy  soil  a  single  drain  will  lower  the  level 
of  the  ground  water  over  a  larger  area  than  in  a  stiff 
clay  soil,  where  drains  must  be  placed  closer  together. 
Some  authorities  hold  that  ground  water  should  not 
be  allowed  nearer  than  five  feet  from  the  surface,  but 
this  appears  to  involve  unnecessary  expenditure.  The 
drains,  it  need  hardly  be  said,  should  be  entirely 
independent  of  any  drain  used  as  a  vehicle  for 
sewage. 

Drained  and  undrained  sites  have  been  tested  by 
various  authorities,  and  many  years  ago  Sir  Douglas 
Galton  found  that  a  well-drained  field  had  a  tem- 
perature of  as  much  as  six  or  seven  degrees  Fahren- 
heit higher  than  an  adjacent  undrained  field. 

Kinds  of  Soil — Rock  is  an  impermeable  formation 
which  makes  in  many  respects  an  admirable  site  for 
houses,  but  care  must  also  be  given  to  the  surface  soil, 
as  it  may  consist  of  decaying  organic  matter.  This 
was  found  to  be  the  case  at  the  Peninsular  Sanatorium 
near  Hong-Kong,  where,  although  the  site  is  of 
granite    formation,    a   severe    epidemic    broke  out 


42  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


amongst  the  troops  quartered  there,  owing  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil  on  the  rock. 

Clay  soil  is  generally  impervious  and  holds  the 
surface  water,  and  is  consequently  bad  unless  care- 
fully drained.  The  suitability  of  this  soil  depends 
largely  upon  the  subsoil,  and  if  the  latter  be  of  gravel 
and  the  clay  not  very  deep,  it  may  form  an  excellent 
site  to  build  upon. 

Houses  near  some  towns  have  to  be  built  on  such 
soils,  and  provided  they  are  properly  drained  they  can 
be  made  at  least  unobjectionable,  although  clay,  being 
a  good  conductor,  is  generally  rather  cold. 

Gravel,  free  from  loam  and  with  a  pervious  subsoil, 
is  generally  considered  good  for  building  sites,  as 
it  allows  the  surface  water  to  rapidly  drain  away. 
Porous  soils  may,  however,  be  objectionable  if  there 
is  an  impervious  stratum  beneath,  which  holds  the 
water  as  in  a  basin. 

Marshy  soils,  including  muddy  sea-beaches  or  river 
banks,  are  unhealthy  and  even  dangerous,  and  are 
shown  by  statistics  to  be  responsible  for  malarial  and 
other  affections. 

Made  o^round — i.e.  o-round  which  has  been  used  as  a 
dust  and  refuse  shoot — is  frequently  found  on  the  out- 
skirts of  towns  and  in  the  suburbs,  and  is,  of  course, 
unhealthy  to  build  upon. 

Chalk,  if  permeable  and  free  from  clay,  is  generally 
considered  to  be  healthy,  but  many  chalks  are  im- 
permeable, and  therefore  damp  and  cold. 

Position  of  Site — Havinor  touched  on  the  various 
soils,  the  position  of  the  site  with  regard  to  health 
may  be  briefly  dealt  with. 

It  has  been  well  stated  that  ground  at  the  foot 
of  slopes  or  in  deep  valleys  which  receive  drainage 


THE  SITE 


43 


from  higher  levels  should  be  avoided,  as  it  predis- 
poses people  even  in  temperate  climates  to  epidemic 
diseases.  High  positions  exposed  to  winds  blowing 
over  low  marshy  ground,  although  some  distance 
away,  are  in  certain  climates  unsafe,  because  of  the 
liability  to  induce  fevers. 

Points  to  consider  in  selecting  a  Site — The  suita- 
bility of  a  building  site  can  be  tested  by  bearing  in 
mind  the  following  points  which  are  here  tabulated  for 
reference  : — 

1.  The  local  climate  should  be  healthy. 

2.  The  soil  should  be  dry  and  porous. 

3.  The  ground  should  fall  in  all  directions  to  facili- 
tate drainage.  If  possible  a  position  on  a  steep  slope 
should  be  avoided,  as  high  ground  near  a  building 
causes  the  air  to  stagnate.  This  was  proved  very 
conclusively  at  Balaclava,  where  the  mortality  in  the 
soldiers'  huts  which  were  placed  on  a  steep  slope  was 
much   hioher  than  in  those  which  were  otherwise 

o 

situated. 

4.  There  should  be  a  free  circulation  of  air  in  the 
district,  and  muddy  creeks  and  ditches,  undrained  or 
marshy  ground  should  not  be  close  to  the  house,  or  in 
such  a  position  that  the  prevailing  winds  would  blow 
the  damp  exhalations  over  the  buildings. 

5.  If  the  site  be  an  exposed  one  it  may  be  sheltered 
from  the  north  and  east  by  trees,  which  should  be  at 
a  suflicient  distance,  however,  to  avoid  causing  stagna- 
tion of  air  or  dampness.  As  a  general  rule  trees  should 
not  be  nearer  to  a  house  than  at  least  their  own  height. 

6.  The  healthiness  may  be  further  tested  by  the 
rate  of  mortality  in  the  district,  and  in  the  case  of 
a  health  resort  consideration  should  be  given  to  its 
disease-curing  properties. 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


7.  The  proximity  of  such  unpleasant  places  as 
sewage  farms,  soap  works,  brick  kilns,  tanneries, 
cement  works  and  lime  kilns  (which  emit  carbonic 
acid,  etc.),  slaughter-houses,  refuse  depots  and  stag- 
nant ponds  should  be  avoided.  A  cemetery  also  has 
a  very  depressing  effect  on  many  people,  and  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Whitelegge,  there  is  evidence  of  increased 
sickness  and  mortality  among  persons  residing  close 
to  a  crowded  graveyard,  the  air  of  which  contains  an 
excess  of  carbonic  acid.  Sites  near  public-houses  and 
schools  are  noisy,  and  often  have  a  bad  effect  on  the 
nerves  of  delicate  people. 

8.  The  drainage  system  in  the  .district,  including 
the  position  of  the  outflow  and  the  method  of  sewage 
treatment,  should  be  ascertained.  Also  whether  the 
conduit  is  constructed  on  modern  principles,  with 
proper  ventilation  and  with  no  backflow  during  high 
tides. 

If  the  site  is  in  the  country,  where  there  is  no 
drainage  system,  a  cesspool  or  septic  tank  must 
be  used,  and  there  must  be  a  convenient  position  with 
a  good  fall  for  such  treatment  and  sufficiently  distant 
from  the  source  of  the  water  used  in  the  house. 

9.  The  water  supply  is  of  the  greatest  importance, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  know  whether  this  can  be 
obtained  from  a  Water  Company's  Main  or  from 
an  adjacent  river  or  well,  or  if  an  artesian  well  will 
have  to  be  sunk.  We  know  a  case  where  a  man  paid 
thousands  of  pounds  for  a  site  before  taking  pro- 
fessional advice,  and  then  had  to  purchase  adjacent 
land  to  secure  the  necessary  water-bearing  strata. 

10.  The  question  of  lighting  is  important,  and 
inquiries  should  be  made  as  to  the  accessibility  of 
electric  and  gas  mains,  or  the  possibility  of  utilizing 


THE  SITE 


45 


waste  water  to  provide  power  for  an  installation  of 
electric  liorht. 

11.  If  the  owner  is  of  a  sporting  nature,  information 
should  be  obtained  as  to  the  nearest  meets  of  harriers, 
fox  and  stag  hounds,  and  the  proximity  of  fishing, 
golfing,  polo,  etc.  Records  of  shooting-bags  on  the 
estate  might  also  be  obtained. 

12.  The  train  service,  postal  arrangements,  shopping 
possibilities  and  cost  of  installing  telephone  should 
also  be  considered. 

13.  Sites  near  a  main  road  should  as  a  rule  be 
avoided  owine  to  the  nuisance  of  motor  traffic. 

14.  It  is  well  to  inquire  whether  any  part  of  the 
neighbourhood  is  likely  to  be  handed  over  to  the 
speculative  builder,  for  this  might  result  in  the  erection 
of  a  class  of  house  which  would  change  the  character 
of  the  neighbourhood. 

15.  The  proposed  tenure  of  the  land — freehold, 
copyhold  or  leasehold — must  also  be  borne  in  mind, 
and  it  is  sometimes  convenient  to  get  an  agreement 
for  a  lease  with  an  option  of  purchasing  the  freehold, 
within  a  given  number  of  years,  at  a  stated  price. 

16.  The  amount  of  the  rates  and  taxes  should  also 
receive  attention,  as  in  some  districts  these  are  almost 
prohibitive. 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  choice  of  a  site  is  an 
important  question,  and  when  one  has  been  found 
probably  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  obtain  an  option 
for  a  given  time  upon  it,  and  then  to  seek  expert 
advice. 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  PLAN 

General  Principles  (Provision  for  Daylight,  Disposition  of  Windows, 
Prospect) — Verandas  —  Corridors  —  The  Rooms  (Entrance  Hall  and 
Staircase,  Dining-room,  Drawing-room,  Library,  Morning-room,  Smoking- 
room,  Billiard-room,  Lavatories,  etc..  Bathroom) — Kitchen  quarters 
(Scullery,  Pantry,  Larder) — Bedrooms — Types  of  Plans. 

GENERAL  Principles — The  plan  of  any  building 
must  depend  upon  the  site,  and  only  general 
principles  which  indicate  special  points  to  be 
observed  can  be  laid  down. 

The  first  principle  is  that  the  sun  should  enter 
every  living-room  at  some  period  of  the  day,  for  it 
is  just  as  important  to  the  air  of  a  room  as  water 
is  to  the  human  body,  and  no  apartment  can  be 
considered  healthy  which  is  not  periodically  disin- 
fected by  its  rays.  It  is  indeed  generally  an  easy 
matter  to  ensure  this,  and  even  old  and  badly  planned 
houses  can  often  be  made  healthy  by  the  judicious 
insertion  of  windows  to  admit  the  sun's  rays.  Even 
in  awkwardly  situated  rooms  it  is  often  possible  to 
put  in  a  small  sun-window,  which  adds  much  to  the 
cheeriness  of  the  house,  and  affects  in  no  small 
degree  the  health  and  spirits  of  the  occupants. 

Provision  for  Daylight  —  A  sufficient  and  abundant 
supply  of  daylight  should  be  provided  for  every  room, 
the  exact  amount  varying  with  regard  to  any  ob- 
struction which  may  be  contiguous  thereto.    We  con- 

46 


THE  PLAN 


47 


sider  this  question  in  chapter  xiv.,  which  deals  with 
lio^htinof. 

Disposition  of  Windows — Much  may  be  done  by  the 
skilful  disposition  of  the  windows ;  an  odd  number 
of  windows  in  an  apartment  is  generally  preferred, 
in  order  to  avoid  a  pier  in  the  centre  of  a  wall  which 
would  cast  a  shadow  right  across  the  room.  No  dark 
corners  for  the  accumulation  of  dirt  should  be  allowed, 
for  "Out  of  sight,  out  of  mind,"  is  a  saying  which 
should  be  remembered  in  all  matters  of  sanitary 
planning. 

Prospect — The  view  to  be  obtained  from  the  rooms 
and  any  special  characteristics  of  the  site  must  not 
be  forgotten  ;  and,  indeed,  in  the  country  they  should 
be  a  factor  in  determining  the  general  position  of  the 
rooms.  The  hygienic  value  of  a  view  over  a  pleasing 
landscape  should  not  be  lightly  disregarded. 

It  is  evident  that  in  many  houses  the  points  of  the 
compass  have  not  been  properly  considered.  We 
must  remember  that  the  sun  is  south  at  noon  all  the 
year  round,  and  that  the  rooms  should  in  general 
be  so  planned  as  to  trap  its  rays.  In  England 
northern  and  north-eastern  aspects  are  cold,  southern 
are  warm,  and  north-western  and  south-western 
aspects  are  subject  to  boisterous  winds,  often  accom- 
panied by  driving  rain.  The  south-eastern  aspect 
is  dry  and  mild,  and  is  perhaps  best  suitable  for  most 
of  the  living-rooms,  while  a  north-eastern  aspect  is 
best  for  the  kitchen  and  offices. 

Verandas — A  Veranda  (or  Loggia)  is  a  feature 
which  in  modern  domestic  buildings  should  be  intro- 
duced with  discrimination  in  Great  Britain.  Owing 
to  our  climate,  with  its  comparative  dreariness  and 
3<bsence  of  sunlight,  it  is  usually  best  never  to  light 


48 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


a  room  solely  by  windows  which  have  a  covered 
Veranda  in  front  of  them,  for  an  apartment  lighted 
only  in  this  way  will  generally  be  dark  and  unhealthy. 

Some  of  the  plans  of  houses  that  we  give  (Ills. 
22  1,  233,  247)  show  Verandas,  but  in  all  cases  it  will 
be  seen  that  such  rooms  are  also  lighted  by  other 
windows. 

Corridors — Corridors  should  be  well  lighted  and 
ventilated  from  the  outer  air,  and  planned  with  due 
regard  to  economy  and  efficiency.  Compactness  is 
necessary,  so  that  the  various  rooms  may  be  sufficiently 
close  and  not  separated  by  long  passages.  The 
success  of  a  plan  depends  largely  upon  the  convenient 
disposition  of  the  various  rooms,  and  this  we  will 
now  consider  in  detail. 

The  Rooms:  Entrance  Hall  and  Staircase — The  Entrance 

Hall  and  Staircase  are  usually  best  placed  on  the 
north  side,  so  that  the  sitting-rooms  may  face 
south.  A  good  square  Hall,  containing  an  open 
newel  staircase,  well  lighted  by  a  large  window  and 
warmed  by  an  open  fireplace  which  gives  it  a  home- 
like effect,  can  on  occasion  be  used  as  an  extra  sitting- 
room  or  lounge  as  shown  in  Ills.  202,  221,  226,  242, 
259,  297,  300,  310  and  329.  Sometimes  the  Hall 
can  have  a  recess  to  serve  as  a  dining-room  as  shown 
in  111.  307. 

The  long,  narrow  passage,  dignified  by  the  name 
of  hall,  in  many  town  houses  is  dreary  and  draughty, 
instead  of  cosy  and  comfortable.  In  planning  a 
Sitting-hall  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  draughts  by 
the  arranoement  of  the  rooms  round  it,  and  the  Stair- 
case  should  not  interfere  unduly  with  the  use  of  the 
Sitting-hall.  The  stairs  should  be  at  least  three  feet 
six  inches  wide,  to  allow  room  for  two  persons  to 


THE  PLAN 


49 


pass  one  another.  In  order  to  prevent  over-fatigue 
to  delicate  people,  they  should  not  be  designed  in 
longer  flights  than  ten  steps  without  a  landing.  The 
construction  should  be  strong  enough  to  avoid  ob- 
jectionable creaking,  which  interferes  with  the  quietude 
so  essential  to  a  well-ordered  house. 

The  proportion  of  height  to  width  of  tread  is 
important.  The  rule  that  twice  the  height  of  the  riser 
added  to  the  width  of  tread  should  equal  twenty-four 
inches  will  be  found  to  give  a  comfortable  proportion. 

Dining-  room — The  Dining-room  aspect  should  usually 
be  north,  east  or  north-east.  If  also  used  as  a  Break- 
fast-room, it  should  certainly  have  a  few  points  of 
east,  so  as  to  get  the  morning  sun,  and  this  can  be 
effected  by  means  of  a  bay  window  (111.  267).  A 
western  aspect  should  be  avoided,  as  the  level  rays  of 
the  sun  on  a  summer  evening  tend  to  make  the  room 
hot  and  unpleasant  at  a  time  when  it  should  be  cool. 
The  Dininof-room  should  of  course  be  near  the 
kitchen  quarters,  but  separated  by  a  well-ventilated 
Servery,  so  arranged  as  to  exclude  kitchen  smells. 
A  recess  for  the  sideboard  may  be  formed  (111.  226) 
at  the  end  near  the  serving-door  or  hatch,  which 
should  always  be  provided. 

Drawing-room — The  Drawing-room  should  have  a 
southern  aspect,  but  anything  between  south  and  west 
is  suitable.  The  room  should  be  bright  and  cheerful 
with  plenty  of  window-space,  and  with  bay  windows 
to  form  attractive  corners.  It  may  open  on  to  the 
flower  garden  or  be  formed  in  connection  with  a 
Conservatory  as  shown  in  Ills.  221,  226,  233,  242,  251, 
267,  279,  293  and  310. 

Library — The  Library  should  be  in  a  quiet  and 
retired  position  for  purposes  of  study,  and  is  best 
4 


50 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


with  a  north  or  eastern  aspect,  as  dryness  is  an 
important  consideration,  but  if  possible  a  sun  window 
should  be  provided. 

Morning -room — The  Mornino"- room  should  have  a 
south-east  aspect  in  order  to  catch  the  morning  sun 
as  shown  in  111.  293,  but  if  due  east  it  is  as  well 
to  add  a  bay  window,  so  as  to  obtain  in  addition  the 
southern  sun.  A  north-western  aspect  should  be 
avoided. 

Smoking-room — A  Smoking-room  may-  sometimes  in 
small  houses  be  planned  in  connection  with  the  gar- 
den, but  much  depends  upon  the  idiosyncrasies  of 
the  owner,  as  some  people  do  not  object  to  smoking 
in  any  part  of  the  house. 

Billiard-room — The  Billiard-room  is  best  in  a  retired 
position,  and  it  is  often  possible  to  plan  the  ground- 
floor  Lavatories  in  connection  with  it.  The  ventila- 
tion of  the  Billiard-room  is  an  important  subject,  which 
is  dealt  with  in  chapter  xv.,  page  218. 

A  toplight  is  undoubtedly  the  best :  that  of  a  lantern 
type  with  glass  sides  is  preferable,  as  it  is  less  liable  to 
leak.  We  have  often,  however,  to  be  satisfied  with 
sidelights,  but  this  is  not  so  inconvenient  when  the 
room  is  used  mostly  in  the  evening,  as  is  often  the 
case. 

Lavatories  and  Water-closets  —  Lavatories    and  Water- 

closets  should  be  planned  with  special  regard  to 
privacy.  A  Lavatory  and  W.C.  are  generally  placed 
on  the  ground  floor  in  proximity  to  the  front  or 
garden  entrance,  and  this  is  a  suitable  position  pro- 
vided that  it  is  properly  screened  (Ills.  242  and  283). 

An  ideal  position  for  the  Lavatories  and  W.C.'s  is 
in  a  sanitary  wing,  cut  off  from  the  main  building  by 
cross-ventilation  lobbies,  but  this  is  not  often  carried 


THE  PLAN  51 

out  on  account  of  the  disinclination  to  mark  these 
conveniences  too  prominently,  and  owing  to  the  extra 
expense  involved.  A  ventilating  lobby  can,  however, 
generally  be  arranged,  or  one  can  be  formed  by 
placing  the  Lavatory  itself  between  the  passage  and 
the  W.C.  (Ills.  10  and  15). 

Bathroom — The  Bathroom  on  the  first  floor  may 
have  a  lavatory  basin  with  hot  and  cold  water,  and 
thus  help  to  economize  labour.  There  is  no  need  to 
overdo  the  size  of  a  Bathroom,  as  one  eight  feet 
square  is,  as  a  rule,  quite  large  enough.  The  Bath- 
room should  if  possible  be  provided  with  a  fireplace, 
as  it  provides  ventilation  for  carrying  off  the  steam. 

Wherever  possible,  for  the  sake  of  economy.  Water- 
closets,  Bathrooms,  Lavatories  and  sanitary  fittings 
should  be  placed  over  each  other  on  each  floor,  so  that 
the  wastes  can  discharge  into  the  same  down-pipes. 
Bath  wastes  should  be  placed  near  the  highest  point 
of  the  drain,  so  that  their  discharge  may  act  as  a  drain- 
flush. 

Kitchen  and  Offices— The  Kitchen  should  be  planned 
with  a  view  to  cross-ventilation,  so  that  smells  from 
cooking  may  not  find  their  way  into  the  house.  The 
aspect  should  be  north  or  east,  as  both  are  cool 
and  dry,  and  the  position  should  be  convenient 
for  access  to  Dining-room  and  front  entrance  (Ills. 
221,  226,  259  and  302).  The  cooking-range  should 
be  planned  so  that  the  light  comes  from  the  side 
(Ills.  10,  12,  226  and  316),  to  enable  the  cook  to  see 
what  she  is  doing.  Neglect  of  this  precaution  is  a 
common  failure  in  house-planning,  and  it  would  seem 
that  some  designers  think  that  as  long  as  light  is 
introduced  into  the  Kitchen  the  position  of  the 
windows  is  of  small  consequence. 


52  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Scullery — The  Scullery  should  have  a  cool  aspect, 
and  be  in  connection  with  the  Kitchen.  The  sink 
should  be  in  front  of  a  window,  and  of  glazed  stone- 
ware in  preference  to  stone,  for  the  latter  after  a  time 
becomes  objectionable  by  being  impregnated  with 
grease. 

The  wall  above  the  sink  should  be  lined  with  glazed 
tiles  for  a  height  of  two  feet,  so  that  the  splashings 
may  be  easily  washed  off.  The  flooring  should  be 
impervious,  and  tiles  are  therefore  suitable  for  this 
purpose  and  are  neat  in  appearance. 

Pantry — The  Pantry,  which  is  used  for  the  cleaning 
and  storing  of  china,  glass  and  silver,  should  be  near  the 
Kitchen,  and  may  form  part  of  the  service-room  (Ills. 
259  and  316).  It  should  either  be  fitted  with  a  glazed 
stoneware  or  a  lead-lined  sink,  and  hot  and  cold  water 
should  be  laid  on. 

Larder — The  Larder  should  face  north  for  coolness 
and  have  two  windows,  to  create  a  through  draught, 
and  thus  prevent  stagnation  of  air.  The  windows 
should  have  perforated  zinc  gratings  to  keep  out  flies 
and  insects. 

Bedrooms — The  Bedrooms  should  be  planned,  where 
practicable,  so  as  to  get  as  much  morning  sun  as 
possible,  and  therefore  east,  south-east  or  south  are 
all  good  aspects.  As  old  Dr.  Fuller  said  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  "An  east  window  gives  the 
infant  beams  of  the  sun  before  they  are  of  sufficient 
strength  to  do  harm,  and  is  offensive  to  none  but 
a  sluggard."  Beds  should  not  be  placed  in  a  direct 
draught  between  the  door  and  fireplace  ;  they  should 
not  face  the  light  nor  be  too  near  the  window  ;  but 
they  should  be  in  a  position  where  air  can  freely 
circulate. 


THE  PLAN 


53 


III.  io.    A  Suburban  House. 


A  ventilation  flue  is  required  by  all  sanitary  authori- 
ties in  bedrooms  which  have  no  fireplace,  but  the 
latter  should  be  provided 
where  possible. 

The  position  of  the  dress- 
ing-table, wardrobe  and  wash- 
stand  should  also  be  con- 
sidered, and  the  doors  and 
fireplace  planned  with  regard 
to  these  fittings. 

Types  of  Plans — The  plans 
throughout   the    book  have 
been  selected  as  showing  vari- 
ous types  of  houses,  but  each 
building  should  be  designed 
with  reference  to  the  exigencies  of  site  and  surround- 
ings and  the  personal  idiosyncrasies  of  the  owner. 
The  following  plans,  however,  may  show  some 
of  the  principles  which  should 
guide  us  in  certain  cases. 

111.  IO  shows  a  detached  house 
for  a  narrow  suburban  site,  with 
three  rooms  communicating. 

It  indicates  an  attempt  to  give 
the  hall  a  more  inviting  character 
by  making  it  square  in  shape  and 
by  the  addition  of  a  fireplace. 
The  lavatories  are  cut  off  from 
the  houses  as  much  as  possible, 
and  are  shown  in  connection 
with  the  front  entrance. 

Ills.  II  and  12  are  the  ground 
and  first-floor  plans  of  a  pair  of 
semi-detached  houses.    On  the  ground  floor  a  square 


First  Floor.     Ground  Floor. 

Ills,  ii  and  12. 
A  Semi-detached  House. 


54 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


hall  with  fireplace  is  given,  and  the  service  from 
kitchen  to  dining-room  is  so  arranged  that  the  smell 
from  the  cooking  is  intercepted  by  the  scullery. 

111.  13  is  a  ground  plan  of  a  small  inexpensive 
bungalow  containing  two  reception-rooms  (i.e.  dining- 
_  and  living-room).  In  this  type 
there  are  no  passages,  and  the 
stairs  are  screened  off  from  the 
hall.  The  water-closet  is  en- 
tered through  the  lavatory,  and 
has  in  addition  a  ventilating 
lobby.  The  kitchen  quarters  are 
fairly  convenient  for  the  front 
door  and  dining-room. 

111.  14  is  the  plan  of  an  entrance 
unusual  shape  of  the  living- 
room  is  necessitated,  because  a 
look-out  window  commanding 
the  main  road  and  private  drive 
is  required.  Bedrooms  are  placed 
over  the  carriage-drive  entrance. 

111.  15  is  the  ground-floor  plan 
of  a  doctor's  house. 


III.  13.    A  Bungalow. 


lodge.  The 


III.  14. 

An  Entrance  Lodge. 


III.  15.    A  Doctor's  House. 


THE  PLAN 


55 


There  Is  a  large  square  hall  with  fireplace,  lit  from 
windows  high  up  in  the  pantry  wall.  The  consulting- 
room  (library)  surgery  and  waiting-room  are  self- 
contained  and  yet  in  communication  with  the  house. 
The  surgery  entrance  is  in  connection  with  the 
waiting-room,  as  are  also  the  lavatories.  The  library 
is  in  touch  with  the  front  door. 

The  pantry  acts  as  a  ventilating  lobby  between  the 
dining-room  and  kitchen. 

111.  1 6  represents  a  pair  of  work- 
men's cottages  or  two  houses  of 
a  terrace  of  small  dwellings.  A 
large  living-room  and  scullery 
are  provided,  in  connection  with 
which  is  a  bathroom. 

A  bathroom  used  to  be  seldom 
found  in  a  workman's  cottage,  but 
it  is  perhaps  more  necessary  in 
this  class  of  dwelling  than  in  any 
other,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the 


III.  i6. 

Workmen's  Cottages. 


work  carried  on  by  the  arti- 
san. The  bath,  being  close 
to  the  scullery,  can  be  readily 
supplied  with  hot  water,  and 
the  room  becomes,  in  fact,  a 
lavatory  and  bathroom  com- 
bined. 

Ills.  17  and  18  are  the 
ground  and  second -floor 
plans  of  a  town  house,  the 
first  floor  being  omitted, 
because  it  is  given  up  to 
the  reception-rooms,  which 


Ground-floor  Plan.  Second-floor  Plan. 

Ills.  17  and  18.    A  Town  House,  need  nO  explanation 


56  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


The  ground  floor  has  a  good  outer  and  inner  hall 
with  fireplace.  The  stairs  to  basement  enable  the 
servants  to  get  to  the  fro..t  door  without  traversing 
the  inner  hall.  A  vaulted  passage  seven  feet  wide 
leads  to  the  dinino-room  at  the  rear  of  the  site.  A 
small  cloak-room  and  lavatory  are  placed  under  the 
stairs.  The  serving-room  and  service  stairs  are  con- 
veniendy  near  the  dining-room.  On  the  second  floor 
are  two  suites  of  rooms — front  and  back — with  baths 
and  lavatories  in  connection  therewith. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  only  lavatories,  bathrooms 
and  water-closets  are  lighted  from  internal  areas. 


III.  19.    A  Large  Country  House. 


111.  19  is  the  ground  plan  of  a  large  country  house, 
which  is  so  planned  that  all  the  living-rooms  may,  as 
far  as  possible,  get  the  sun's  rays  at  some  portion  of  the 
day,  and  the  kitchen  block  wards  off  the  cold  north- 
east winds.  The  dining-room  is  easily  served  from 
the  kitchen  quarters  and  faces  north  for  the  sake 
of  coolness. 

A  morning-room  leading  off  the  drawing-room  is 
provided,  and  this  can  also  be  used  as  a  breakfast- 
room.  The  billiard-room  is  in  connection  with  the 
o-round-floor  lavatories.    The  conservatories  and  win- 


THE  PLAN  57 

ter  garden  form  the  south-west  block,  and  are  placed 
so  that  the  sun  is  on  them  during  the  whole  of  the 
day. 

Other  types  of  plans  are  given  in  chapter  xviii., 
page  246,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 


CHAPTER  IV 


THE  EXTERIOR 

General  Principles  of  Design — Walls  :  [{a)  Brick  ;  {d)  Stone  ;  (c) 
Concrete  ;  (d)  Weather  Tiling ;  (e)  Rough  Cast  ;  (/)  Half-timber ; 
(^)  Weather  Boarding]— Windows  :  [{a)  Sashes  ;  (d)  Casements  ;  (c)  Dor- 
mers; {d)  Shutters]  —  Doorways — Cornices  —  Roofs:  [Tiles;  Slates; 
Stone  Slabs  ;  Shingles  ;  Thatch] — Turrets — Chimneys— Optical  Correc- 
tions. 

GENERAL  Principles  of  Design — The  external 
and  internal  designs  form  the  most  import- 
ant considerations  after  convenience  in  plan- 
ning, and  should  possess  an  air  of  restfulness  in 
keeping  with  the  essential  objects  of  the  home.  The 
exteriors  of  some  of  the  old  farmhouses,  which  are 
fast  disappearing,  possess  those  attractive  qualities 
of  repose  and  simplicity  which  have  provided  motifs 
for  many  of  the  best  modern  houses,  but  the  nar- 
rowness of  the  sites  in  the  neiofhbourhood  of  towns, 
especially  near  the  metropolis,  owing  to  the  value  of 
the  road  frontage,  often  renders  it  very  difficult  to 
produce  a  satisfactory  exterior  on  such  lines. 

An  architect's  best  preparation  for  this  class  of 
design  is  the  sketching  and  measuring  of  old  farm- 
houses in  and  around  EnoHsh  villaores,  where  oradual 
growth  has  brought  about  effective  grouping,  com- 
bined with  simplicity  of  detail. 

The  most  prevalent  fault  in  modern  architecture  is 
the  striving  after  picturesqueness  for  its  own  sake, 
which  generally  results  in  crowding  the  building  with 

58 


THE  EXTERIOR  59 

miniature  features  which  are  supposed  to  give  scale, 
but  of  which  the  net  result  is  often  a  toylike  struc- 
ture, with  a  fussy  and  strained  effect,  which  is  an 
outrage  on  good  taste.  It  is  perhaps  a  question 
whether  any  design  of  intentional  picturesqueness 
has  ever  equalled  the  accidental  grouping  that  is 
sometimes  found  in  old  houses,  whose  history  clearly 
shows  that  there  was  no  deliberate  intention  to  pro- 
duce the  total  result. 

One  leading  principle  in  this  class  of  design  is  that 
the  building  should  have  the  long  and  low^  effect 
which  is  so  much  admired  in  the  old  farmhouses,  and 
is  so  different  from  the  ugly,  cubical,  boxlike  structure 
which  was  the  fashion  in  the  Early  Victorian  period. 

The  internal  height  of  the  rooms  is  a  very  important 
matter,  and  it  is  a  good  rule  to  follow  to  make  them 
as  low  as  you  dare.  The  subject  is  dealt  with  at 
length  in  chapter  vi.,  page  91.  It  is  best,  however,  to 
consider  external  design  in  relation  to  the  various 
parts  of  the  building,  such  as  walls,  windows,  door- 
ways, roofs,  turrets  and  chimneys  ;  but  a  pleasing 
result  is  sometimes  produced  by  keeping  down  some 
parts  of  the  design  to  the  height  of  one  story,  as 
in  Ills.  241,  299,  321,  324. 

Walls — The  base  of  walls  should  be  treated  so  as  to 
give  an  appearance  of  strength,  and  there  are  many 
ways  of  doing  this,  one  method  being  to  project 
the  lower  portion.  This  projection  should  be  of 
sufficient  width  and  height,  and  is  sometimes  made 
to  coincide  with  the  sills  of  the  ground-floor  windows 
in  order  to  obtain  an  effective  proportion.  In  place  of 
any  projection  at  all  a  stone  or  rough  granite  base 
may  be  formed  as  shown  in  111.  257,  and  other  treat- 
ments are  seen  in  Ills.  214,  241,  258,  315  and  324. 


6o  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


(a)  Brick — Bricks  are  probably  the  most  usual 
material  for  walls,  and  the  effect  is  much  improved  by- 
using  those  which  have  different  shades  of  colour.  A 
variety  of  tints  can  be  obtained  by  mixing  bricks 
burnt  by  wood  fires,  called  bavins,  with  the  ordinary 
red  kiln-burnt  bricks,  and  if  judiciously  selected,  the 
result  is  very  pleasing.  If  local  bricks  of  good  quality 
and  colour  can  be  obtained  they  should  certainly  be 
used,  and  it  is  well  to  remember  that  sand-faced  hand- 
made bricks  are  far  superior  in  appearance  to  ma- 
chine-made bricks.  They  are  well  worth  the  extra 
cost,  especially  in  small  houses  where  little  ornament 
is  used,  and  where  the  appearance  depends  mainly 
on  proportion  and  on  material  employed.  In  brick 
houses  of  Georgian  design  stone  quoins  at  the  angles 
are  frequently  employed  (111.  246,  p.  281). 

(d)  Stone — In  districts  where  stone  is  plentiful,  it  is 
of  course  used  either  as  ashlar  or  rubble  masonry, 
and  forms  a  restful  change  to  those  who  have  been 
accustomed  to  seeing  brick  houses.  In  certain  dis- 
tricts, such  as  Cumberland,  the  rubble  walls  are 
constructed  without  mortar  on  the  external  face,  and 
this  treatment  gives  a  very  beautiful  rough  texture  to 
the  wall  surface.  In  some  districts,  such  as  Norfolk 
and  Suffolk,  the  main  portion  of  the  walling  is  of 
flint,  split  and  roughly  squared,  the  quoins  being- 
formed  of  stone. 

(^)  Concrete — Concrete  has  been  used  in  certain 
cases,  but  it  is  generally  admitted  that  it  is  usually  not 
less  expensive  than  ordinary  brick-walling,  while  it 
is  often  faced  with  some  other  material. 

(^)  Weather  Tiling — Weather  tiling  is  an  effective 
facing  material  for  walls,  as  may  be  seen  in  many  old 
English  examples,  and  is  shown  in  modern  houses 


THE  EXTERIOR 


6i 


in  Ills.  24T,  258,  262  and  315.  The  method  of  secur- 
ing the  tiles  to  the  wall  is  shown  in  111.  24. 

(^)  Roughcast — Rough  cast  or  Harling,  as  it  is 
called  in  Scotland,  forms  a  very  pleasing  finish  and 
has  several  advantages,  including  that  of  helping  to 
keep  the  walls  dry.  The  materials  used  are  stated  in 
chapter  v.,  page  77,  and  examples  of  this  treatment 
are  shown  in  Ills.  201,  214,  220,  224,  240,  247,  274, 
278,  282,  306,  322  and  324. 

(/)  Half-timber — Walls  formed  of  timber  uprights  with 
brick  and  plaster  filling  are  picturesque,  but  the 
method  of  formino-  them  with  thin  facincj  boards  in 
lieu  of  solid  timber  framing  should  be  avoided,  as  it 
will  not  last  and  is  sure  to  give  trouble. 

Examples  of  Half-timbering  are  show^n  in  Ills.  232, 
241,  253  and  257. 

(g-)  Weather  Boarding — Properly  tarred  or  treated  with 
preservatives,  weather  boarding  is  also  used  in  country 
districts  with  good  effect,  especially  in  small  cottage 
work, 

Windows — The  type  of  window  adopted  by  the  archi- 
tect, whether  it  is  of  the  sash  or  casement  variety, 
is  such  an  important  feature  in  the  design,  that  archi- 
tectural style  for  small  buildings  can  almost  be  divided 
into  sash-window  and  casement-window  architecture, 
but  it  will  be  well  to  deal  shortly  with  a  few  general 
principles  applicable  to  all  windows. 

Ground-floor  windows  should  generally  have  the 
glass  line  about  two  feet  six  inches  from  the  floor 
(some  prefer  it  even  two  feet),  so  that  a  person  can 
look  out  when  sitting  in  an  easy-chair.  Bedroom 
windows  should  have  the  glass  line  rather  higher,  e.g. 
three  feet  six  inches  or  even  four  feet,  in  order  to 
secure  sufficient  privacy.    The  top  of  the  windows 


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on  all  floors  should  finish  as  near  the  ceiline  as 
possible,  in  order  to  ensure  ventilation  and  give  a 
bright  and  cheerful  character  to  the  interior. 

The  question  of  window  bars  is  generally  a  source 
of  much  discussion  with  clients  who  are  sometimes 
in  favour  of  large  sheets  of  plate  glass,  which  are 
bare  and  uninteresting,  while  windows  with  well-pro- 
portioned divisions  give  scale  and  add  to  the  apparent 
size  of  the  house.  A  practical  reason  in  favour  of 
window  bars  is  that  the  panes  if  broken  are  easily 
and  cheaply  replaced. 

Divisional  bars  are,  however,  objected  to  by  some, 
because  it  is  said  they  obstruct  the  view  and  diminish 
the  light,  but  the  latter  objection  can  easily  be  over- 
come by  increasing  the  size  of  the  window.  With 
regard  to  the  former,  it  is  a  matter  of  doubt  whether 
it  does  not  improve  the  outlook  in  general.  The 
window  bars,  in  fact,  frame  in  a  series  of  pictures,  each 
contrasting  with  the  other,  and  give  to  the  interior 
•  a  homely  air  and  feeling  of  security  against  the 
elements  which  is  wanting  in  a  room  with  lar^e  sheets 
of  glass. 

The  bars  should  be  at  least  in.  in  width  in 
small  buildings — Sir  Christopher  Wren  in  his  larger 
structures  made  them  as  much  as  2  in.  wide.  The 
size  of  the  openings  formed  by  the  vertical  and 
horizontal  bars  requires  careful  consideration,  but  a 
proportion  of  5  in.  in  width  to  8  in.  in  height  will 
generally  be  satisfactory. 

[a)  Sashes — The  windows  of  the  Georgian  style 
were  mostly  of  the  sash  type,  i.e.  in  two  parts,  made 
to  slide  up  and  down  by  means  of  pulleys  and  weights. 
This  form  appears  to  have  been  first  brought  into 
this  country  in  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary,  and 


THE  EXTERIOR  63 

its  utility  appealed  quickly  to  the  practical  British 
mind. 

In  consequence  of  an  uneven  number  of  divisions, 
the  upper  and  lower  sashes  are  sometimes  of  unequal 
height,  and  in  this  case  the  upper  sash  should  be  the 
smaller. 

The  sash  window  is  held  by  some  to  be  inartistic, 
and  it  does  not  always  lend  itself  to  poetic  fancy,  for 
we  cannot  imagine  Romeo  conversing  with  Juliet 
through  a  sash  window  ;  but  rather  from  the  casement 
or  lattice  window  of  Shakespeare's  time. 

Sashes  require  a  more  formal  treatment  than  case- 
ments, and  should  not  differ  much  in  height  or  width 
throughout  the  design,  or  an  unpleasant  effect  is  pro- 
duced. Different  examples  of  the  use  of  these  windows 
are  shown  (Ills.  201  and  246).  A  detail  drawing  of 
a  typical  Georgian  sash  window  is  shown  in  Ills.  20, 
21  and  22  on  the  following  page. 

The  face  of  the  window  frame  should  be  from  one 
to  two  inches  from  the  external  face  of  the  wall  as 
shown,  thus  leaving  internal  space  for  a  wide  window 
seat,  and  adding  to  the  sense  of  comfort  and  security 
by  giving  a  greater  internal  thickness  of  wall. 

The  external  appearance  of  the  window  with  the 
frame  almost  flush  with  the  face  of  the  wall  is  also 
more  effective  than  when  hidden  behind  brickwork, 
as  the  white  paint  of  the  woodwork  contrasts  well 
against  the  red  brickwork  or  green  shutters. 

The  sash  window  has  the  advantage,  not  possessed 
by  casements,  of  enabling  a  room  to  be  ventilated 
without  draught,  by  the  provision  of  a  deep  inner 
bead  at  the  bottom,  which  permits  the  lower  sash  to 
be  slightly  raised,  thus  admitting  fresh  air  between 
the  meeting  rails  as  shown  by  the  arrow  on  III  22, 


64  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

(d)  Casements — Casements,  as  before  stated,  are 
often  more  in  harmony  with  country  buildings,  as  they 
are  simpler  and  cheaper  and  require  a  less  formal 


GEORGIAN  SASH  WINDOW. 


III.  21.  Plan. 


treatment.  They  are  hung  to  stone  or  solid  wooden 
frames,  usually  about  one  foot  six  inches  to  one  foot 
eight  inches  apart  centre  to  centre,  and  look  reposeful 
and  in  harmony  if  arranged  on  the  long  and  low 


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65 


principle  as  seen  in  Ills.  240,  258,  262,  274,  296,  299, 
306  and  322.  • 

In  very  high  windows  transoms  are  sometimes 
required  to  stiffen  the  mullions  near  the  centre  of 
their  length,  but  they  are  best  avoided,  as  they  take 
away  from  the  reposeful  effect  of  the  upright  mullions. 
If  they  are  used  they  should  be  at  least  six  feet 
from  the  floor,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  sight 
line. 

One  of  the  upper  panes  in  each  room  should  be 
made  to  open  independently,  so  that  sufficient  ven- 
tilation can  be  effected  in  cold  weather  without  open- 
ing the  whole  casement,  or  if  a  fanlight  is  provided 
above  the  transom  it  can  be  hinged  at  the  top  to 
open  outwards. 

Leaded  glass  is  frequently  used  with  wooden  case- 
ments, but  it  is  cheaper  and  quite  as  effective  to  have 
the  small  squares  formed  by  the  wooden  bars  as 
already  mentioned  for  sash  windows.  Where  the 
mullions  are  of  stone,  as  in  the  hall  windows  shown  in 
Ills.  225,  232,  241  and  in  other  windows  illustrated 
in  321,  322  and  324,  the  casements  which  are  to  open 
should  be  formed  of  wrought-iron  or  steel ;  and  the 
leaded  lights  of  those  which  are  not  to  open  can  be 
fitted  direct  to  the  stonework.  French  casements  are 
dealt  with  in  chapter  vi.,  page  98. 

[c)  Dormers — Dormer  windows  are  necessary  for 
lighting  the  rooms  in  the  roof,  and  if  of  simple 
character  and  grouped  together,  with  odd  panels 
filled  in  with  rough  cast,  as  shown  in  Ills.  241  and 
247,  they  produce  a  quiet  and  pleasing  effect.  They 
take  the  place  of  gables,  but  cause  the  area  of  the 
room  to  be  diminished,  as  they  must  be  set  back  from 
the  face  of  the  wall  as  in  111.  208  until  a  height  of 
5 


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three  feet  from  the  floor  has  been  reached  for  the 
window  sill. 

[d)  Shutters — The  use  of  sun  shutters  has  often 
been  carried  to  excess,  as,  for  example,  when  placed 
on  the  northern  facade  of  a  house,  for  in  this  position 
they  can  never  fulfil  their  duty  as  a  protection  against 
the  sun,  and  thus  form  an  instance  of  illegitimate 
striving  after  effect. 

Doorways — The  front  doorway  is  a  feature  which 
lends  itself  to  special  treatment,  and  should  generally 
be  emphasized  so  as  to  give  it  importance  and  an  in- 
viting aspect ;  shelter  of  some  sort  should  be  provided 
for  the  visitor  between  rinoinor  the  bell  and  oaininof 
admission.  This  may  be  effected  by  a  recessed  open- 
ing as  in  Ills.  225,  232,  241  and  287,  or  by  a  small  pro- 
jecting roof  as  in  Ills.  247  and  299,  or  by  a  simple 
treatment  in  the  form  of  a  porch  with  a  carved  pro- 
jecting hood  similar  to  those  of  the  Georgian  period. 

The  entrance  doorway  in  a  small  house  need  not 
usually  be  higher  than  six  feet  six  inches  ;  the  porch 
should  be  not  less  than  four  feet  in  length  and  may 
be  as  wide  as  five  feet  as  in  Ills.  211,  221  and  226. 
The  door  itself  may,  if  necessary,  be  hung  in  two 
unequal  widths,  and  the  smaller  portion  need  only  be 
opened  for  special  purposes  as  shown  in  111.  242. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  introduce  more  light  into  a 
large  hall  than  can  be  effected  through  a  fanlight,  and 
in  that  case  a  range  of  mullioned  windows  may  be 
designed  with  the  entrance  door  as  in  Ills.  225,  232 
and  241. 

Cornices — One  important  fact  can  be  learnt  from 
the  study  of  the  best  art  of  the  past,  viz.  that  a  bold 
crownino-  cornice  is  a  most  effective  termination  to  a 
buildinor  and  will  oive  it  character  and  interest.  A 


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67 


building  of  simple  design  often  becomes  a  fine  com- 
position by  means  of  a  well-proportioned  cornice,  as 
is  seen  in  the  plain  yet  masterly  design,  by  Inigo 
Jones,  of  St.  Paul's  Church,  Covent  Garden,  which 
he  himself  called  the  handsomest  barn  in  Europe. 

The  stone  or  wood  cornices  of  the  Georgian  period 
do  not  exhibit  much  inventiveness,  but  they  were 
well  constructed  and  projected  from  two  to  three  feet. 
They  thus  serve  a  useful  purpose  in  keeping  the 
building  dry  by  preventing  falling  rain  from  soaking 
down  the  walls  and  entering  the  windows  on  the 
upper  floor. 

Ills.  208  and  246  have  this  principle  in  view,  and 
the  central  feature  of  the  latter  house  is  typical  of 
Georgian  architecture  ;  the  cornice  is  carried  up  into 
a  deep  pediment,  with  a  low  window  lighting  one  of 
the  upper  rooms. 

Roofs — The  design  of  the  roof  should  give  unity 
to  the  structure,  and  much  depends  upon  the  general 
treatment  adopted.  In  the  smaller  type  of  house  a 
roof  covering  the  whole  structure  makes  for  simplicity 
and  repose,  while  numerous  gables  and  ridges  produce 
a  restless  feelinor  which  it  is  desirable  to  avoid. 

Gables,  when  employed,  should  be  of  simple  outline, 
with  the  tiles  or  slates  of  the  roof  projecting,  and  thus 
keeping  the  walls  dry,  as  in  111.  232,  for  if  gable  walls 
are  carried  up  above  the  roof  surface  lead  flashings 
are  required,  which  causes  an  additional  expense. 

Hipped  roofs  are  those  which  are  set  back  from 
the  face  of  the  wall,  as  in  111.  208.  The  wall  in 
this  case  is  terminated  by  the  eaves  gutter.  Gables 
and  hipped  roofs  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  employed 
together  in  the  same  design,  as  this  would  produce  a 
confused  result. 


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The  best  method  of  forming  the  eaves  of  a  sloping 
roof  is  to  let  the  slope  overhang  the  wall  two  or  three 
feet  (Ills.  282  and  289),  as  this  gives  a  good  shadow 
and  properly  protects  the  wall  from  falling  rain. 

Horizontal  parapets  are  required  as  a  protection  for 
flat  roofs  or  roofs  of  an  unusual  height  above  the 
ground  which  cannot  be  reached  by  a  ladder.  The 
parapet  requires  an  expensive  lead  gutter,  and  forms 
a  lodgment  for  snow  and  rain-water  such  as  does  not 
occur  in  the  ordinary  eaves  gutter. 

The  most  appropriate  materials  for  covering  slop- 
ing roofs  are  tiles,  slates  and  stone  slabs. 

Tiles — Tiles  are  generally  about  loj  in.  by  6|-  in.  and 
^  in.  thick,  and  are  either  plain  or  moulded  to  various 
patterns.  They  are  now  usually  formed  with  nibs  on 
their  upper  end  to  rest  on  battens,  every  third  course 
being  nailed  with  copper  or  galvanized  iron  nails.  The 
tiles  should  be  laid  so  that  the  ofauoe  is  not  less  than 
four  inches,  in  order  to  ensure  that  rain  does  not  enter 
through  the  joints  (111.  37). 

Tiles  are  of  various  manufacture,  but  it  is  well  to 
use  local  materials  where  possible.  Broseley  tiles  of 
various  colours,  such  as  red,  strawberry,  brown, 
brindled,  and  blue,  have  acquired  a  special  reputation 
for  being  hard  and  impervious  to  moisture.  Sand- 
faced,  hand-made  tiles,  such  as  those  to  be  obtained 
in  Berkshire,  Kent  and  elsewhere,  are  to  be  preferred 
to  machine-made  tiles,  as  though  more  absorbent  they 
weather  better.  The  hard,  uninteresting  appearance 
of  the  machine-made  tile  can  be  avoided  by  the  judi- 
cious mixing  of  old  tiles  with  the  new,  for  they  will 
soon  tone  down  together  and  give  additional  texture 
and  colour  to  the  building.  If  new  tiles  are  used 
alone  it  is  well  to  get  variety  of  colour,  and  not  to 


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69 


insist,  as  is  so  often  done,  that  colour  should  be  uni- 
form throughout.     Pantiles  are  mentioned  on  p.  88. 

Tiles  are  warmer  in  winter  and  cooler  in  summer 
than  most  other  roofing  materials,  and  this  is  an 
advantaore  which  ouo-ht  to  weiorh  with  the  architect. 

Their  weathering  properties  and  picturesque  effect 
add  much  to  the  homely  appearance  of  the  house. 
Artists  well  know  the  value  of  a  weather-stained, 
many-tinted  tile  roof,  which,  when  covered  with  lichen, 
adds  to  the  charm  of  many  an  old  English  cottage. 

Tiles  have  the  disadvantage  of  beinor  heavier  than 

o  o 

slates,  and  they  absorb  more  moisture,  which  is  liable 
to  be  communicated  to  the  rafters,  but  this  can  be 
largely  obviated  by  using  only  those  which  are 
thoroughly  burnt. 

Slates — Slates  are  a  species  of  argillaceous  rock 
which,  owing  to  lateral  pressure,  has  become  laminated, 
causing  it  to  split  easily  in  thin  sheets  along  its  plane 
of  cleavage.  Slates  suitable  for  roofing  purposes  are 
found  in  many  parts  of  England  and  Wales,  but  the 
quality  and  texture  vary  a  good  deal  with  the  locality 
from  which  they  are  obtained. 

Bangor  slates  should  be  avoided,  for  they  are  of  an 
unpleasant  and  gloomy  blue-purple  colour,  which 
never  tones  to  an  agreeable  hue.  Irish  slates  are,  as 
a  rule,  somewhat  thicker  and  coarser,  especially  from 
the  quarries  of  Kilkenny  and  Killaloe. 

Enorlish  slates  are  thick  and  have  a  rouofh  surface 
with  jagged  edges.  They  are  obtained  from  West- 
morland, Lancashire  and  Cornwall,  and  are  infinitely 
preferable  to  any  others,  as  they  are  of  a  beautiful 
grey-green  colour,  which  gives  a  bright  and  cheerful 
appearance  and  forms  a  pleasing  contrast  with  red- 
brick walls.    They  should  be  laid  in  courses  diminish- 


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ing  in  size  towards  the  ridge,  which  helps  to  give 
scale  to  the  design.  There  is  also  a  practical  ad- 
vantage in  this,  because  as  the  bigger  slates  are  at 
the  lower  part  of  the  roof,  over  which  most  of  the 
rain-water  passes,  there  are  fewer  nail-holes  for  the 
possible  entry  of  rain. 

Slates  are  in  some  cases  preferable  to  tiles  in  ex- 
posed situations,  as  they  are  less  absorbent  and  can  be 
used  with  a  roof  of  lower  pitch,  but,  as  they  are  con- 
ductors of  heat,  they  make  the  upper  rooms  cold  in 
winter  and  hot  in  summer. 

Stone  Slabs  —  Stone  slabs,  or  tile  stones,  as  they 
are  sometimes  called,  are  largely  used  for  roofing 
purposes  in  Devonshire,  Gloucestershire,  Somerset, 
Northants,  Oxfordshire  and  Sussex.  They  make  a 
picturesque  and  durable  roofing  material  ;  they  are 
thick,  heavy  and  non-conductors  of  heat,  and  thus 
keep  the  house  cool  in  summer  and  warm  in  winter. 
111.  247  shows  their  use  in  roofing  a  small  country 
house. 

They  are  usually  about  i  in.  thick,  laid  in  diminish- 
ing courses  varying  from  4  to  12  in.,  and  are  torched, 
i.e.  pointed,  on  the  under  side  with  mortar  composed 
of  stone  chippings  and  lime.  The  ridge  should  be 
formed  out  of  solid  sawn  stone,  and  the  valleys  are 
usually  of  taper  or  triangular  slabs,  producing  a  soft 
curve,  which  forms  one  of  the  special  charms  of  this 
roofing  material. 

Shingles — Shingles  of  hard  wood,  such  as  oak  or 
larch,  are  the  same  shape  as  tiles,  but  12  in.  long 
and  6  in.  wide  and  about  J  in.  thick,  and  are  mainly 
used  for  small  roofs  of  turrets,  bay  windows  or 
summer-houses.  In  the  course  of  time  they  weather 
to  a  beautiful  grey  tint,  but  care  should  be  taken,  in 


THE  EXTERIOR 


71 


order  to  make  them  durable,  that  they  are  split  and 
not  sawn  or  planed. 

Thatch — Thatch  is  undoubtedly  picturesque,  but  it 
is  insanitary  and  easily  catches  fire,  and  is  seldom 
employed  in  new  buildings.  Reed  -  thatching,  as 
carried  out  in  Norfolk  and  elsewhere,  is  by  far  the 
best  and  most  lasting  variety.  The  old  class  of 
thatcher  is  indeed  dying  out,  and  it  is  difficult  in 
most  parts  of  the  country  to  get  thatching  properly 
executed.  It  is  sometimes  employed  with  great 
success,  as  in  the  little  cottages  at  Astonbury  (111.  278). 

Flat  roofs,  and  the  nature  of  lead,  zinc  and  copper 
with  which  they  are  usually  covered,  are  dealt  with 
in  chapter  v.,  page  89. 

Turrets — Turrets  are  frequently  designed  to  hold 
clocks  or  bells  or  to  serve  as  observatories  (111.  262), 
and  they  can  be  very  effective  features.  The  architects 
of  the  Georgian  period  have  left  many  fine  examples. 
Modern  turrets  are  often  far  too  small  for  the  posi- 
tion they  occupy,  and  it  must  always  be  remem- 
bered that  they  are  usually  at  the  highest  point  of  the 
building,  and  are  therefore  foreshortened,  and  appear 
reduced  in  size  owing  to  the  distance  from  the  eye. 
An  insignificant  turret  reminds  one  of  a  man  wearing 
a  hat  which  is  much  too  small  for  him,  but  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  pass  to  the  other  extreme  of  a  lady 
with  a  picture-hat. 

Chimneys — Chimneys  should  be  treated  in  a  bold 
and  effective  manner  so  as  to  aid  the  skyline, 
which  is  a  most  important  element  of  the  design. 
This  is  more  apparent  at  night  or  on  a  misty  day 
when  general  proportion  only  can  be  seen.  Chimneys 
are  now  designed  so  much  with  regard  to  economy 
that  they  have  lost  much  of  their  old-time  importance, 


72  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


and  are  frequently  not  high  enough  for  appearance 
or  even  for  creating  sufficient  draught  in  the  flues. 

A  chimney  never  looks  so  high  in  execution  as  it 
does  on  a  drawing,  and  allowance  therefore  has  to 
be  made  for  this  by  the  architect.  It  must  also  be 
remembered  that  in  low-lying  sites,  and  wherever 
overshadowed  by  trees  or  buildings,  additional  height 
must  be  oriven. 

Another  important  point  is  that  flues  should  be 
grouped  together  as  much  as  possible,  for  it  is  far 
better  to  have  two  or  three  eood-sized  stacks  than 
several  small  ones,  as  seen  in  Ills.  246,  257,  262,  274 
and  295. 

A  flue  9  in.  by  9  in.  in  area  is  large  enough  for 
all  ordinary  domestic  fires,  but  in  order  to  get  a  more 
dignified  effect  they  may  frequently  be  made  14  in. 
by  9  in.  They  should  be  encased  by  9-in.  walls, 
although  4|-in.  walls  are  more  usual,  for  the  extra 
width  gives  not  only  a  sturdier  appearance,  but  also 
additional  strength  to  withstand  wind  pressure  and 
prevent  the  ingress  of  driving  rain,  which  will  cer- 
tainly prevent  the  flue  from  drawing  properly. 
Chimneys  on  inside  walls  generally  draw  better,  as 
they  are  more  protected. 

Optical  Corrections — The  effect  of  distance  from 
the  eye  or  foreshortening  must  be  constantly  borne 
in  mind  in  designing  any  structure. 

The  appearance  of  the  finished  structure  can  only 
of  course  be  gauged  by  experience  gained  in  actu- 
ally designing  and  carrying  out  previous  buildings, 
and  by  the  intelligent  study  of  old  buildings.  It 
can  readily  be  understood,  however,  that  a  sloping 
roof  will  in  appearance  be  much  lower  in  execution 
than  on  a  geometrical  drawing,  in  consequence  of 


THE  EXTERIOR  73 

the  ridge  being  much  further  from  the  eye  than 
the  eaves. 

From  the  time  of  the  Greeks  optical  corrections 
have  been  employed  in  architectural  design,  and 
these  corrections  have  to  be  considered  much  more 
thoroughly  in  larger  buildings  than  in  those  we  are 
now  dealing  with. 

There  are,  however,  occasions  when  they  must  be 
borne  in  mind  even  in  smaller  buildings  if  a  satis- 
factory result  is  desired,  as,  for  instance,  when  using 
long  horizontal  beams,  which  always  appear  to  drop 
in  the  centre  unless  slightly  cambered. 


CHAPTER  V 


CONSTRUCTION 

General  Principles— Foundations— Walls  (Hollow  Walls  ;  Wall  Fac- 
ings)—Damp  Courses:  [(a)  Horizontal;  (^)  Vertical] — Dry  Areas— Chim- 
neys— Floors  :  [{a)  Ordinary  Floors  ;  (^)  Fire-resisting  Floors  ;  (^r)  Rein- 
forced Concrete  Floors]— Roofs  :  [{a)  King-post;  (/))  Queen-post;  (c) 
Hammer-beam — Inclination  for  different  Roof  Coverings — Flat  Roofs — 
Gutters]. 

GENERAL  Principles — It  is  a  curious  fact  that 
while  so  many  of  us  are  particular  about  our 
diet,  clothing  and  mode  of  life,  we  often  pay 
but  little  regard  to  the  houses  in  which  we  spend 
the  greater  part  of  our  lives. 

When  most  of  us  have  had  the  drainage  system  of 
our  houses  tested,  we  seem  quite  content  to  take  the 
rest  on  trust,  although  sickness  and  disease  are  prob- 
ably caused  quite  as  often  by  inefficient  construction 
as  by  defects  in  drainage. 

Dampness  is  the  principal  enemy  to  be  contended 
with,  and  it  must  be  kept  out  of  any  building 
which  is  to  be  healthy  and  fit  for  occupation.  The 
construction  of  the  house  should  also  be  considered 
with  regard  to  stability  and  resistance  to  changing 
atmospheric  conditions.  Due  regard  must  be  had  to 
the  fatigue  of  the  different  materials,  whose  future 
behaviour  should  be  provided  for  by  a  margin  of 
safety. 

Local  materials  should  be  utilized  as  far  as  possible, 
for  it  is  piteous  to  see  building  materials,  upon  which 

74 


CONSTRUCTION  75 

heavy  freights  have  had  to  be  paid,  transported  to 
districts  where  materials  of  good  quality  are  abun- 
dant. 

The  site  of  the  structure  should  in  the  majority  of 
cases  be  covered  with  six  inches  of  Portland  cement 
concrete,  and  the  top  of  this  floated  over  with  one  inch 
of  neat  cement,  in  order  to  prevent  any  damp  air  rising 
into  the  building.  The  Model  By-laws  of  the  Local 
Government  Board  provide  for  this  sanitary  require- 
ment ;  and  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  families 
have  often  been  more  or  less  poisoned  by  vapour 
drawn  up  through  the  ground  into  their  dwellings. 

We  will  now  deal  briefly  with  the  construction  of  the 
different  portions  of  a  building. 

Foundations — Trial  holes  should  always  be  bored 
over  a  proposed  building  site  for  the  purpose  of 
finding  out  its  exact  nature,  and  this  will  sometimes 
prove  an  additional  advantage  to  the  client,  as  suit- 
able sand  and  gravel  may  thus  be  found  that  can  be 
used  for  the  mortar  and  concrete,  thus  savingr  the  cost 
and  cartacre  of  obtaininor  it  from  elsewhere. 

Each  individual  case  must  be  treated  on  its  own 
merits,  but  excavations  in  most  instances  should  be 
continued  until  a  firm  foundation  at  least  three  feet  six 
inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  reached. 

Buildings  are  sometimes  erected  on  reinforced  con- 
crete rafts,  which  have  been  found  necessary  owing  to 
unusual  local  conditions ;  in  other  cases  timber  or 
concrete  piles  have  been  used,  while  brick  piers 
connected  by  arches  are  both  economical  and  satis- 
factory. 

The  base  of  all  walls  should  be  formed  with  pro- 
jecting footings  twice  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  in 
order  to  form  a  wide  base  (like  the  feet  of  human 


76  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

beings  and  animals)  on  which  to  spread  the  weight ; 
and  beyond  this  the  concrete  should  project  six 
inches  on  each  side  as  seen  in  Ills.  23,  25,  26,  27 
and  28. 

Portland  cement  concrete  should  generally  be 
used  in  foundations,  and  should  not  be  mixed  in  less 
proportions  than  one  part  of  cement  to  six  of  aggre- 
gate, the  latter  being  composed  of  hard  gravel  or 
bricks  broken  to  pass  through  a  two-inch  ring,  suffi- 
cient sand  being  added  to  fill  up  the  interstices.  Good 
blue  lias,  or  other  hydraulic  lime,  may  sometimes  be 
substituted  for  Portland  cement. 

Walls — Walls  are  usually  either  of  brick,  stone  or 
the  other  materials  which  have  already  been  briefly 
discussed  in  chapter  iv.,  page  59. 

They  should  as  far  as  possible  have  non-absorbent 
properties  which  can  be  tested  by  placing  the  material 
in  water  and  weiofhinor  before  and  after  immersion,  so 
that  the  amount  of  water  absorbed  can  be  ascertained. 

This  absorption  varies  considerably  with  different 
materials,  as  seen  in  the  approximate  table  given 
below  : — 

Granite  .  .  .  absorbs  i  per  cent  of  its  weight. 
Blue  Staffordshire  bricks  ,,  6  ,,  ,,  ,, 
Ordinary  London  stocks  ,,  7^,,  ,,  ,,  ,, 
Hard  stocks  .  .  .  „  10  ,,  ,,  ,, 
Portland  stone  .  .  ,,  14  ,,  ,, 
Bath  stone    .       .       .       „     17    ,,    ,,       „  ,, 

A  brick  backinor  not  less  than  nine  inches  in  thick- 
ness  is  generally  placed  behind  all  stone  walls,  and 
care  should  be  taken  that  this  backing  is  thoroughly 
bonded  with  the  stone  facing,  one  through  stone 
for  every  square  yard  of  wall  surface  usually  being 
sufficient. 


CONSTRUCTION 


77 


Hollow  Walls — Hollow  walls  are  useful  in  exposed 
situations,  the  two  portions  forming  the  inner  and 
outer  walls  being  placed  about  2^  in.  apart  and  con- 
nected together  with  bonding  bricks  or  metal  wall-ties 
at  intervals,  as  seen  in  111.  23. 

Authorities  differ  as  to  whether 
the  one-brick  or  the  half-brick 
wall  should  be  placed  externally, 
and  there  are  advantages  in  both 
methods  ;  although  it  seems  better 
construction  to  put  the  half-brick 
wall  outside,  so  that  the  floor  and 
roof  timbers  can  rest  on  a  solid 
one-brick  wall  as  shown  in  111.  23. 
The  vitrified  bonding  bricks  which 
are  sometimes  used  to  bind  the 
two  thicknesses  together  should 
be  of  the  form  shown  in  111.  23, 
in  order  that  rain  may  not  be 
drawn  from  the  outer  to  the  inner 
wall,  and  so  nullify  the  advantage 
gained  by  having  the  cavity. 

111.  23  also  shows  how  the  head 
and  sill  of  a  window  in  a  hollow 
wall  should  be  protected  from  any 
damp  which  may  find  its  way  into 
the  hollow  space. 

Wall  Facings — Brick  walls,  especially  on  exposed 
sites,  are  often  protected  from  driving  rains  by  being 
rendered  in  cement,  which,  although  not  always  satis- 
factory in  appearance,  is  certainly  effective. 

Rough  cast  is  also  used  for  this  purpose,  and  if 
applied  with  simplicity  and  taste,  forms  a  very  pleasing 
and  effective  resistance  to  the  damp  (see  chap,  iv.,  p.  61). 


PLATE 


III.  23.  A  Hollow  Wall. 


78  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


The  following  is  a  good  specification  for  pebble- 
dash  rough  cast  in  two -coat  work.  The  first  or 
backing  coat  is  composed  of  two  parts  of  cement 
to  five  of  pit-sand,  but  more  cement  is  required 
for  a  hungry  variety  of  sand ;  and  the  finishing 
coat  is  composed  of  6  parts  of  selected  pebbles,  i|- 
of  cement,  ^  of  sand  and  i  of  slaked  lime,  the  total 
thickness  on  the  walls  being  about  f  in.  Other 
varieties  of  rouoh  cast  are  formed  with  the  surface 

o 

left  rough  from  the  trowel  or  treated  with  a  stiff 
broom,  to  give  it  texture.  The  whole 
may  with  advantage  be  brushed  over 
with  a  wash  made  in  the  proportion 
of  28  lb.  of  boiled  Russian  tallow  to 
36  gallons  of  yellow  ochre  and  slaked 


//// 

|tt      1  TILCS  1 

i 

1 
i 

I   J  L 

^  ImarginI 

111 

lime. 


Weather  tiling,  as  shown  in  111.  24, 
III.  24.         is  an   excellent   method   of  keeping 
Wall  Tiling.     ^alls  dry  against  driving  rains  (see 
chap.  IV.,  p.  60). 

Damp  Courses — As  before  mentioned,  the  principal 
consideration  in  the  construction  of  houses  is  to 
ensure  equable  temperature  and  to  keep  out 
cold  and  damp,  which  latter  may  be  effected 
by  means  of  (a)  horizontal  and  (i?)  vertical  damp 
courses. 

(a)  Horizontal  Damp  Courses — The  horizontal  damp 
course  is  required  to  prevent  damp  being  drawn  up 
into  the  walls  by  capillary  attraction,  much  in  the 
same  way  as  moisture  is  drawn  up  by  a  sponge.  It 
should  be  formed  of  some  non-absorbent  material, 
fixed  not  less  than  six  inches  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  all  wall  plates  and  flooring  must  be 
placed  above  it  in  order  to  be  protected  from  the 


CONSTRUCTION  79 

damp.  III.  25  shows  a  horizontal  damp  course  with 
air-bricks  inserted  at  intervals  to  ventilate  the  space 
underneath  the  floor,  and  thus  to  guard  against 
dry-rot. 

There  are  several  materials 
which  are  used  as  damp  courses, 
of  which  the  following  are  the 
principal  ones  in  use  :  — 

1.  Two  courses  of  slates, 
breaking  joint,  and  set  in  ce- 
ment, form  a  usual  and  effec- 
tive material,  but  the  objection 
frequently  raised  against  it  is 
that  the  slates  are.  liable  to 
crack  with  the  slightest  settle- 
ment, although  the  fracture  will 
not  always  materially  affect  their  efficiency. 

2.  Asphalt,  which  should  be  one  of  the  varieties 
of  rock  asphalt,  forms  a  very  good  damp  course  and 
should  be  applied  in  two  layers  of  f  in.  each. 

3.  Lead  is  sometimes  use3  to  form  a  damp  course, 
but  owing  to  its  cost  is  not  often  employed. 

4.  Patent  bituminous  felt  compositions  laid  with 
lapped  joints  are  used,  and  being  elastic  in  character, 
remain  effective  in  the  event  of  a  slight  settlement 
in  the  building. 

5.  A  course  of  vitrified  fire-clay  air-bricks  built  in 
cement  prevents  the  rising  of  damp  and  at  the  same 
time  ventilates  the  space  under  the  ground  floor,  thus 
preventing  any  tendency  to  dry-rot  in  the  timbers. 
In  putting  damp  courses  into  old  buildings  where  they 
have  been  omitted,  this  is  often  the  best  and  cheapest 
method,  as  a  course  of  bricks  can  be  cut  out  in  sections 
all  round  the  building  and  the  air-bricks  inserted, 


CONCRETE. 

rovNnA,Tio« 


III.  25.    A  Horizontal 
Damp-proof  Course. 


8o 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


{d)  Vertical  Damp  Courses — Vertical  damp  courses  are 
provided  to  prevent  damp  entering  a  wall  from  ad- 
jacent wet  ground  ;  hollow  walls  (already  dealt  with) 
and  areas  can  also  be  used  for  this  purpose.  An 


III.  27. 

A  Covered  Dry  Area. 


III.  26. 

A  Vertical  Damp-proof  Course. 


asphalt  lining  in  two  thicknesses  of  f  in.  each  is 
shown  in  111.  26. 

Dry  Areas  —  A  dry  area,  placed  outside  the  wall 
and  left  open,  is  shown  in  111. 
28,  and  a  dry  area,  drained, 
arched  over  and  ventilated,  is 
shown  in  111.  27.  This  dry  area 
may  be  from  2^  in.  to  12  in. 
cStl^c  wide,  and  the  cavity  should  be 
carried  up  6  in.  above  the  sur- 
face of  external  ground,  and  a 
damp  course  inserted  at  its  base, 
as  seen  in  111.  27. 
Chimneys — Chimneys  should  be  built  in  cement 
mortar,  and  in  order  to  render  the  flues  as  dry  as 
possible,  they  should  be  surrounded  with  walls  one 
brick  in  thickness.  A  damp-proof  course  just  above 
the  junction  with  the  roof  should  be  provided,  so  as 


III.  28. 
An  Open  Dry  Area. 


CONSTRUCTION 


8i 


to  prevent  rain-water  soaking  through  to  the  roof 
timbers. 

The  stacks  should  be  carried  up  at  least  three 
feet  above  the  ridge  of  the  roof,  and  the  flues 
gathered  over,  as  shown  in  111.  29,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  tendency  to  down  draughts, 
which  arises  when  the  chimney  -  pot 
and  fireplace  are  in  the  same  vertical 
line. 

There  are  many  patent  chimney-pots 
and  cowls  for  the  cure  of  chimneys 
that  will  not  draw  properly,  and  in 
low-lying  sites  we  have  found  some  to 
be  of  service,  but  the  secret  of  a  good 
draught  lies  mainly  in  the  skilful  con- 
struction of  the  flues  themselves. 

The  oreneral  architectural  treatment 
of  chimneys  is  considered  in  chapter 
IV.,  page  71,  and  the  construction  of 
the  chimney  hearth  is  shown  on  Ills.  Gathering 

OF  Flues. 

148  and  149. 

Floors — Floors  may  be  considered  under  the  fol- 
lowing headings  :  (a)  Ordinary  floors  ;  (d)  Fire-resisting 
floors  ;  {c)  Reinforced  concrete  floors. 

(a)  Ordinary  Floors — Ordinary  floors  are  constructed 
with  wooden  joists,  placed  about  one  foot  apart,  and 
covered  with  floor  boarding  on  the  upper  side,  and 
with  lath-and-plaster  ceiling  on  the  under  side,  as 
shown  in  111.  30.  This  form  of  floor  is  unhealthy 
because  of  the  accumulation  of  dirt  which  collects 
in  the  spaces  beneath  the  boarding,  for  every  time 
such  a  floor  is  washed  it  means  the  addition  of  more 
filth  to  that  which  has  already  passed  through  the 
open  joints  of  the  floor  boards,  and  found  a  resting- 
6 


III.  29. 


82  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


place  on  the  plastered  ceiling  beneath  (111.  30). 
Such  floors  when  used  should  be  covered  with 
grooved  -  and  -  tongued    or   ploughed  -  and  -  tongued 


FcU  for  de<t<i^/u^ 


Top  Ixiyer 

of  hoards 


LAQTER 
  CEILING 

'hURKIMG  E)0ME  5TKUTTI/SG 

III.  30,    A  Timber  Floor  with  Herring-bone  Strutting. 

boarding,  which  will,  to  a  certain  extent,  prevent 
dust  and  dirty  water  from  falling  between  the  boards. 
111.  31  shows  a  floor  in  which  the  usual  lath-and- 
plaster  ceiling  is  omitted,  and  this  method  is  further 
alluded  to  in  chapter  vi.,  page  loi.    The  timber  joists 

are  visible  from  the  room 
below,  and  give  a  certain 
homely  effect,  as  seen  in 
Ills.  229  and  230,  while  ob- 
viating the  insanitary  draw- 
backs of  the  ordinary  floor. 
Two  thicknesses  of  board- 
ing with  a  laver  of  non- 
conducting  material  between  them  are  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  joists. 

A  rough  guide  for  the  depth  of  the  joists  placed  a 
foot  apart  and  between  two  and  three  inches  in 
thickness  is  : — 

Span  in  feet  . 

~  ^  h  I  in.  =  depth  of  joist  in  inches. 

Where  the  bearing  exceeds  eight  feet,  the  joists 
should  have  one  row  of  herring-bone  strutting  as 
shown  in  111.  30,  and  when  the  span  exceeds  twelve 
feet  there  should  be  two  rows. 


UTtder  layo 
of  boards 


III.  31.    Hygienic  Floor. 


FLOOR 
BOARDS. 


CCIUNG 
JOISTS 


III.  32.    A  Double  Floor. 


CONSTRUCTION  83 

Double  floors  in  which  binders  are  introduced 
are  occasionally  used  over  large  rooms,  and  in  such 
cases  separate  ceiling  joists  are  sometimes  used,  as  in 

111.  32. 

Steel  joists  are  now 
generally  employed  in 
lieu  of  the  wooden 
binders,  and  the  joists 
then  rest  on  plates 
bolted  to  the  webs  of 
the  orirder. 

In  order  to  prevent 
dry-rot  in  wooden 
floors  ventilation  is 
always  necessary 
where  there  is  a  space  between  the  floor  boards 
and  ceiling  (111.  30),  also  w^ith  ground  floors  having 
a  space  between  the  floor  boards  and  ground  (111.  25), 
and  floors  have  constantly  to  be  relaid  in  old  build- 
ings because  of  the  neglect  of  this  precaution.  The 
ventilation  is  effected  by  means  of  perforated  iron 
gratings  as  shown  in  111.  25,  or  air-bricks  built  into 
the  outer  walls  and  so  arranged  that  cross-ventilation 
is  produced. 

Dry-rot  almost  invariably  arises  where  dampness, 
stagnation  of  air  and  warmth  are  in  combination,  and 
the  most  extraordinary  instances  occur  of  the  destruc- 
tive effects  of  this  disease  in  timber.  When  once 
thoroughly  started  its  ravages  are  remarkable  and 
it  will  spread  across  brick  and  stonework,  and,  in 
fact,  almost  any  material,  in  order  to  attack  adjacent 
timber.  Directly  it  is  discovered  it  should  be  ruth- 
lessly dealt  with,  all  affected  parts  cut  away  and  all 
adjoining  materials  thoroughly  scraped  and  treated 


84 


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sublimate    or   other   strong  disin- 


fire-resisting 


with  corrosive 
fectant. 

(b)  Fire-resisting  Floors  —  Fire-resisting  floors  formed 
upon  hygienic  principles  should  be  used  where  possi- 
ble, so  that  dust  and  vermin  may  not  be  harboured  in 
cracks  and  crevices. 

Ordinary  wooden  joists  placed  side  by  side  form  a 
floor  (111.  33).  In  this  case  the  floor 
boarding  is  nailed  direct  to 
the  upper  surface  of  the 
joists,  which  are  left  ex- 
posed on  the  under  side  with 
a  V-joint  formed  between 
them  as  shown  or  with  dove- 
tailed grooves  formed  so  that 
plastering  may  have  an  effective  key. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  steel  and  concrete  fire- 
resisting  floors.  One  of  the  best,  which  costs  little  more 
than  the  ordinary  combustible  wooden  floor,  consists  of 
steel  joists  placed  about  two  feet  apart,  and  the  space 
between  filled  up  with  six  or  seven  inches  of  concrete 
(111.  34).  The  concrete  projects  about  one  inch  below 
the    bottom   flanoe  of 


'^V-JOINTS 

III.  33. 

A  FlRE-RESISTlNG  TIMBER  FlOOR. 


?3 

the  girders,  so  as  to 
protect  them  from  fire 
and  to  enable  the  ceil- 
ing below  to  be  plas- 
tered. Steel  rods  are 
often  used  as  shown, 
in  order  to  increase 
floor. 

The  floor  boards  can  be  nailed  direct  on  to  the 
concrete  or  may  rest  on  fillets  of  dovetail  section 
about  three  inches  by  two  inches,  laid  flat  and  fixed 


■^PLASTER.  fcONCRETC.  ^  tCOLLEP  3TCEI-1 
JOISTS. 

III.  34.    A  Steel  and  Concrete 
Fire-resisting  Floor. 


the  tensile 


strength 


of  the 


CONSTRUCTION 


85 


thereto.  The  space  thus  formed  is  useful  for  gas 
and  water  pipes,  but  it  is  objectionable  as  it  forms 
a  convenient  place  for  dust  and  dirt.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  the  concrete  is  thoroughly  dry  if  the 
boards  are  nailed  direct  to  it,  otherwise  dry-rot  may 
result. 

(c)  Reinforced  Concrete  Floors — Where  Steel  bars  are 
used  in  conjunction  with  concrete  floors,  the  latter  are 
said  to  be  "reinforced,"  and  one  method  is  shown 
(111.  35)  where  steel  bars 
are  placed  near  the  under 
side  of  the  floor  in  order 
to  take  the  tensional 
strain  where  it  is  oTeatest. 
There  are  many  forms 
of  patent  bars  and  stir- 
rups for  such  floors  now 
on  the  market. 

Solid  wood  blocks  (111.  36)  may  be  laid  direct 
to  the  concrete,  but  floor  coverings  are  dealt  with 

more  fully  in  chapter  vi., 
page  91,  and  are  also 
mentioned    in  chapter 

XVI. 

Roofs  —  Attics  with 

ILL.  36.  A  WOOD-BLOCK  Floor.      slopiug  ccilings  are  for 

economy's  sake  some- 
times used  in  the  roof ;  they  are  not  considered 
good  from  a  hygienic  point  of  view,  because  they 
are  usually  cold  in  winter  and  hot  in  summer. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  provide  an  air  space  be- 
tween the  ceiling  of  the  room  and  the  outer  cover- 
ing of  the  roof;  or,  if  the  whole  of  the  room 
is  in  the  roof,  to  fill  in  between  the  rafters  with 


III.  35. 

A  Reinforced  Concrete  Floor. 


86 


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BA1TEN3: 


III.  37.    Eaves  of  Roof. 


pugging  of  silicate  cotton,  slag-wool,  or  other  non- 
conducting material  (111.  37).  Roofing  felt  or  Willes- 
den  paper  should  also  be  used  under  the  slates  or  tiles. 

In  all  cases  it  is  advis- 
able to  have  rough  board- 

o 

ing  as  well  as  battens 
under  the  slates,  as  the 
continuous  wood  surface 
is  a  non-conductingr  me- 
dium.  The  eaves  of  roofs 
should  project  boldly  (Ills. 
37,  208,  225,  246  and 
278),  so  as  to  protect  the 
wall  from  rain,  and  at 
the  same  time  give  a 
good  finish  to  the  design,  as  mentioned  in  chapter  iv., 
page  67. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  go  deeply  into  the  construc- 
tion of  the  various  forms  of  roof,  because  in  the  class 
of  house  we  are  discussing  they  are  generally  of  a 
simple  character. 

The  couple  roof,  in  which  the  rafters  rest  on  a 
wall  plate  and  have  their  upper  ends  fixed  to  a  ridge 
piece,  is  usual  in  small  buildings.  A  horizontal  beam, 
called  a  collar,  is  spiked  to  each  pair  of  rafters  to 
counteract  their  tendency  to  spread  and  push  out  the 
walls.  This  form  should  not  be  employed  for  a  greater 
span  than  fifteen  feet,  unless  purlins,  i.e.  horizontal 
timbers,  can  be  arranged  to  rest  on  the  partition  walls 
to  support  the  rafters  in  the  centre  of  their  length. 

(a)  King-post  Roofs — It  is  desirable,  if  this  cannot  be 
arranged,  to  adopt  a  king-post  truss  (111.  38)  for 
spans  up  to  thirty  feet,  which  consists  of  a  tie-beam, 
principal  rafters,  king-post,  struts  and  purlins. 


CONSTRUCTION 


88 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Queen-post  Roofs — The  queen-post  truss  (111.  39) 
should  be  adopted  when  the  span  is  above  thirty  feet. 

{c)  Hammer-beam  Roofs — In  large  halls  or  billiard-rooms 
an  open  roof  of  the  hammer -beam  type  may  be 
adopted,  as  shown  in  111.  40. 

A  table  of  the  least  inclinations  necessary  for  differ- 
ent roofing  materials  is  given  below,  but  in  order  to 
obtain  rooms  in  the  roof,  or  for  the  sake  of  appearance, 
these  inclinations  are  sometimes  increased  in  practice. 


Angle  of  Inclination  for  Different  Roof  Coverings. 


Inclination 

Height  of  Roof 

Kind  of  Covering. 

TO  THE 

IN 

Horizon. 

Parts  of  Span. 

Copper  .... 

3°  50' 

1 

"Jo 

Lead  .... 

3°  50' 

1 

3(5- 

Zinc  .... 

4°  0' 

1 

Slates  (large) 

22°  0' 

1 

5 

,,     (ordinary) . 

26°  33' 

1 

4 

Asphalted  felt  . 

3°  50' 

1 

30 

Thin  slates  of  stone  or  flags  . 

29°  41' 

f 

Pantiles  .... 

24°  0' 

■J 

Thatches  of  straw,  etc. 

45°  o'-6o°  0' 

1  2 

Plain  tiles  .... 

45°  0' 

1 

2 

Materials  for  roof  cover- 
ings were  dealt  with  in 

o 

chapter  iv.,  page  68,  but 
pantiles  have  not  been  re- 
ferred to,  for,  as  a  rule, 
they  are  only  used  for 
outhouses,  which  do  not 
require  to  be  made  abso- 
iLL.  41.  PANTiLiNG.  lutdy  Watertight.  They  are 

fixed  on  laths,  as  shown  in  111.  41,  and  are  "torched" 
or  pointed  on  the  under  side  with  lime-and-hair  mortar. 


BATTENS 


RAFTERS 


CONSTRUCTION 


89 


Flat  Roofs — Flat  roofs  are  generally  covered  with 
lead,  copper  or  zinc,  but  this  method  is  gradually 
being  superseded  by  steel  and  concrete  covered  with 
asphalt,  for  the  difference  in  cost  is  slight,  and  the 
durable  properties  much  in  favour  of  the  latter 
materials.  The  table  eiven  above  shows  that  lead 
roofs  should  be  almost  flat,  otherwise  the  lead  is  liable 
to  creep  or  crawl  down  the  slope  of  the  roof  owing 
to  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

The  edores  between  two  sheets  of  lead  are  dressed 
over  semicircular  wooden  rolls  about  two  feet  three 
inches  apart,  laid  in  the  direction  of  the  slope. 

Drips  are  formed  at  the  junction  of  the  ends  of 
the  lead  sheets  about  every  eight  feet  along  the  slope 
of  the  roof  Nailing  should  be  executed  with  copper 
nails  (not  iron),  to  prevent  any  galvanic  action  being 
set  up  between  the  lead  and  iron,  and  to  obviate  the 
destruction  of  ordinary  iron  nails  by  oxidation. 

Copper  is  generally  used  for  small  ornamental  roofs, 
such  as  over  turrets  and  bay  windows.  It  oxidizes  by 
the  action  of  the  air,  and  verdigris,  forming  on  the 
surface,  gives  a  splash  of  bright  green  colour,  which 
forms  a  protection  to  the  copper  itself. 

Zinc  is  laid  much  the  same  way,  but  as  it  expands 
more  than  any  other  metal,  great  care  should  be  taken 
to  allow  for  this.  The  sheets  should  be  held  in  posi- 
tion by  zinc  clips,  and  should  be  not  less  than  14 
gauge  for  good  work.  It  is,  of  course,  much  inferior 
to  copper  or  lead. 

Gutters — Iron  eaves  gutters  (111.  37)  should  be  fixed 
so  as  to  quickly  convey  the  water  to  the  iron  or  lead 
rain-water  down  pipes. 

Lead  gutters  to  parapets  should  not  be  less  than 
12  in.  wide,  in  order  to  give  room  for  a  person  to 


90  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


walk  along  them  without  damaging  the  slates  or  tiling. 
They  should  be  laid  with  sheet  lead  weighing  at  least 
6  lb.  to  8  lb.  per  superficial  foot,  and  constructed  with 
a  fall  of  not  less  than  in.  in  lo  ft.,  with  2-in.  drips 
at  required  lengths,  and  with  a  cesspool  formed  at  the 
end  of  the  gutter,  having  a  pipe  connected  to  the  rain- 
water head  at  the  top  of  the  down  pipe.  A  wire 
domed  cover  should  be  fitted  to  the  outlet  to  prevent 
it  becoming  stopped  up  with  leaves  or  debris. 

These  gutters  should  have  snow-guards  formed  of 
transverse  bearers  and  strong  battens,  ^  in.  to  i  in. 
apart,  according  to  the  width  of  the  gutter,  so  that 
after  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  a  clear  way  underneath  the 
same  may  be  left  for  the  water  to  pass  to  the  down 
pipe. 

Snow-guards  are  effective  safeguards  in  protecting 
the  gutters  from  workmen  when  engaged  upon  re- 
pairs ;  and  they  also  protect  the  lead  gutters  from  the 
heat  of  the  sun,  and  minimize  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion to  a  considerable  extent. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  INTERIOR 


General  Principles — Floor  Coverings  (Tiles,  Marble,  Mosaic,  Oak 
Battens,  Wood  Blocks,  Parquet,  Carpets,  Cork  Carpets) — Wall  Coverings 
(Papers,  Distemper,  Paint) — Doors — Windows — Fireplaces — Ceilings. 

GENERAL  Principles— The  interior  should  be 
designed  so  that  it  may  be  as  perfect  as  possible 
from  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  for  surely  the 
health  of  those  occupying  the  house  should  be  con- 
sidered before  everything  else,  although  many  interiors 
are  apparently  carried  out  with  little  regard  to  this  most 
important  point. 

Having  satisfied  this  requirement  the  interior  should 
then  be  treated  so  that  it  will  satisfy  and  appeal  to 
the  artistic  taste  of  the  owner  and  his  family. 

It  is  difficult  to  imagine  why  rooms  of  a  greater 
height  than  eight  feet  six  inches  or  nine  feet  should 
be  necessary  for  the  smaller  class  of  country  house, 
for  they  are  not  necessary  from  a  hygienic  point  of 
view,  yet  money  is  often  needlessly  thrown  away  in 
constructinor  rooms  of  excessive  heioht,  which  militates 
against  the  long  and  low  principle  in  design  referred 
to  in  chapter  iv.,  page  59. 

Floor  Coverings— We  have  elsewhere  dealt  with  the 
construction  of  various  types  of  floor  (see  chap,  v., 

p.  81). 

Tiles,  marble,  mosaic  or  some  substance  of  a  non-absorp- 
tive  character,  should  be  used  for  the  floors  of  halls 

91 


92  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

(111.  239),  bathrooms,  kitchens,  sculleries,  larders, 
water-closets,  lavatories  and  conservatories,  so  that  they 
may  be  washed  down  frequently. 

Lavatories,  bathrooms  and  sculleries  should  in  addi- 
tion have  their  floors  laid  to  an  inclination  so  that  when 
washed  down  the  dirty  water  may  be  led  by  means  of 
a  duct  pipe  into  a  rain-water  head  or  gully  trap. 

Generally  speaking,  floors  should  be  as  non- 
absorbent  as  possible,  although  for  the  sake  of  warmth 
to  the  feet  they  are  generally  formed  of  wood. 

Oak  Battens  or  Other  hard  wood  with  rebated  and 
tongued  joints  make  a  very  good  floor,  as  shown 
in  Ills.  205,  206  and  216,  and  absorb  little  moisture, 
but,  owing  to  expense,  deal  or  pitch-pine  battens 
stained  and  varnished  are  often  substituted. 

Wood-block  Flooring,  as  shown  in  111.  36  and  referred  to 
in  chapter  v.,  page  85,  may  also  be  used. 

Rooms  in  the  cheaper  class  of  house  may  have  the 
surrounds  of  the  deal  flooring  stained  and  varnished 
or  painted  three  or  four  coats  of  good  oil  colour  and 
then  varnished,  and  this  will  last  for  years. 

A  parquet  floor  of  hard  wood  is  excellent  from  a  sani- 
tary point  of  view,  as  it  ensures  a  uniform  and  im- 
pervious surface.  When  it  is  not  possible  to  lay  it 
over  the  whole  of  the  room  it  may  be  formed  as  a 
margin  round  the  sides,  with  ordinary  boarding  in  three- 
inch  strips  for  the  remainder.  There  are  some  forms 
of  parquet  floor  which  can  be  laid  down  and  easily 
removed  if  required  without  damage  to  the  under  floor. 
Parquet  flooring  should  be  washed  with  an  antiseptic 
such  as  spirits  of  turpentine,  after  which  it  should  be 
polished  with  turpentine  and  beeswax  mixed  with  a 
little  household  soap,  which  mixture  fills  up  the  pores 
of  the  wood.    This  polish  can  be  made  by  melting  the 


THE  INTERIOR 


93 


ingredients  together  until  a  consistency  of  vaseline  is 
obtained,  when  it  should  be  laid  on  and  well  rubbed 
and  polished  with  a  rag  and  stiff  brush. 

Carpets  are  receptacles  for  dust  and  dirt,  especially 
those  which  are  fitted  into  every  nook  and  corner  of 
the  room.  As  custom  in  England  prescribes  a  carpet, 
it  is  best  to  have  a  central  Turkey  carpet  or  even 
a  rug,  which  can  then  be  frequently  taken  up  and 
properly  shaken  in  the  open,  and  not  left,  as  a  fitted 
carpet  usually  is,  with  all  its  accumulation  of  dirt  from 
one  spring  cleaning  to  the  next. 

The  drawing-room  and  hall  need  not  necessarily 
have  a  central  carpet,  but  rugs  may  be  placed  over  the 
parquet  or  oak  batten  floor  where  required,  as  shown  in 
Ills.  190,  196,  206. 

Bedroom  floors  may  be  stained  and  varnished  and 
a  rug  put  by  the  bedside  so  as  to  be  warm  to  the  feet 
on  stepping  out  of  bed. 

Cork  carpet  glued  directly  upon  the  finished  cement 
face  of  the  concrete  coverino-  the  site  has  been  sue- 
cessfully  used,  thus  saving  all  the  cost  of  flooring  (Ills. 
236,  237).  It  is  absolutely  necessary,  however,  that  the 
concrete  should  be  thoroughly  dry  and  the  cork  carpet 
seasoned  and  guaranteed  by  the  maker.  This  form  of 
covering  makes  an  excellent  finish,  for  it  is  warm  to  the 
feet  and,  if  properly  laid,  takes  the  place  of  the  ordinary 
carpet,  except  perhaps  that  a  few  rugs  can  be  added 
if  desired.  It  looks  best  when  of  a  plain  colour  with- 
out any  attempt  at  patterns,  and  may  be  cleansed  either 
by  washing  or  by  polishing  with  the  beeswax  mixture 
already  referred  to. 

Wall  Coverings — The  construction  of  walls  generally 
is  dealt  with  in  chapter  v.,  page  76.  Internal  walls  if 
not  of  brick  are  formed  usually  of  upright  timbers 


94  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

called  studs  and  brick  nogging,  but  where  formed  of 
studs,  the  space  between  may  be  plugged  with  slag- 
wool,  which  is  vermin-proof. 

A  picture-rail  should  be  provided  to  every  room,  as 
shown  in  Ills.  238  and  239,  and  may  generally  be 
made  to  line  up  with  the  top  of  the  doors  and  the  case- 
ment windows,  as  shown  in  Ills.  236  and  313,  but 
must  be  stopped  against  sash  windows  which  are 
generally  higher,  as  shown  in  111.  200. 

The  suggested  wall  treatment  of  various  rooms  is 
discussed  in  chapter  xvi.,  page  220. 

Hollow  spaces  behind  wood  skirtings  should  be 
avoided,  for  these  become  the  homes  of  mice  and  other 
vermin  and  allow  of  the  collection  of  dust  and  filth. 

A  much  more  sanitary  arrangement  is  to  form  a 
skirting  of  solid  cement  moulded  to  a  simple  design, 
and  thus  leave  little  projection  for  dust  to  rest  upon. 

111.  313  shows  a  small  low  skirting  which  serves  also 
to  keep  the  chairs  from  damaging  the  walls. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  ordinary  plastering  on 
walls  is  of  a  very  porous  nature  ;  therefore  bathrooms, 
W.C.'s,  kitchens  and  sculleries,  which  are  subject  to 
damp  and  steam,  should  be  finished  with  a  non- 
absorbent  material,  such  as  tiles,  or  Keen's,  Parian 
or  Portland  Cement,  which  may  be  painted. 

Wall-paper,  being  of  an  absorbent  nature,  is  in  conse- 
quence unhealthy,  but  if  of  good  colour  and  design 
has  a  warm  and  cheerful  appearance,  which  adds  to 
the  furnished  appearance  of  the  rooms  and  relieves 
the  bareness  of  the  walls.  Avoid  flock  and  other 
papers  of  a  similar  character,  as  they  are  most  in- 
sanitary and  act  as  dust  collectors.  The  pulp  or  ordi- 
nary papers  are  most  commonly  in  use,  and  great 
improvement  has  in  recent  years  been  made  in  their 


THE  INTERIOR 


95 


manufacture.    They  are  sold  in  pieces  twelve  yards 

long  and  twenty-one  inches  wide.    Wall-papers  should 

not  be  too  pronounced  in  their  design,  and  should  not, 

as  a  general  rule,  be  decorated  with  more  than  two  < 

colours.    The  paper  should  not  be  chosen  from  a 

pattern-book  but  from  the  roll,  as  its  appearance  in 

small  pieces  is  deceptive. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  that,  in  repapering, 
every  scrap  of  old  paper  should  be  taken  off  the  wall, 
which  should  be  well  rubbed  down  and  the  plastering 
made  good  before  any  new  paper  is  hung. 

Stamped  leather  and  imitation  leather  papers  of 
improved  design  have  been  manufactured  largely  in 
recent  years,  and  as  they  only  require  washing  down 
periodically  they  are  good  from  a  sanitary  point  of 
view.  The  Japanese  embossed  leather  papers  are 
hand-made  and  are  very  good  both  in  colour  and 
execution,  and  are  useful  for  dadoes,  friezes  and  also  for 
ceilings,  as  they  resist  the  action  of  gas  and  smoke. 
Some  imitation  Japanese  leather  papers  are  made 
from  the  bark  of  the  mulberry  tree,  damped  and  beaten 
into  wooden  moulds,  then  lacquered  and  coloured  by 
hand.  This  produces  a  resemblance  to  the  old  stamped 
leathers. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  special  materials,  such  as 
Lincrusta  Walton  and  Tynecastle  Tapestry,  which 
latter  consists  of  a  coarse  canvas  face  backed  up  by 
stout  paper.  We  have  frequently  used  rough  canvas 
(scrym),  which  is  strained  and  glued  to  the  walls  and 
then  painted  or  decorated  as  desired.  It  looks  well 
with  panelling  as  shown  in  Ills.  195  and  196. 

Distemper  is  a  mixture  of  whitening,  size  and  water,  to 
which  colouring  matter  may  be  added  in  the  same  way 
as  with  oil  colours.    It  is  only  pervious  to  a  very  slight 


96  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


extent,  and  is  therefore  superior  to  paper  from  a 
sanitary  point  of  view,  and  forms  an  admirable  material 
for  the  walls  of  bedrooms  and  nurseries,  as  it  is  inex- 
pensive and  can  easily  be  renewed.  It  is  also  frequently 
used  for  sitting-rooms,  and  can  be  very  effective  in 
cheerful  colours.  There  are  many  patent  distempers 
each  claiming  special  attributes,  the  principal  one 
being  the  possibility  of  washing  down  without  remov- 
ing the  surface. 

Paint  is  one  of  the  best  materials  for  treating  walls, 
being  practically  impervious  and  therefore  good  from 
a  sanitary  point  of  view.  It  is  easily  washed,  and  is 
of  course  considerably  cheaper  than  the  leather  papers 
already  described.  Many  firms  advertise  enamels, 
which  are  said  to  have  wonderful  properties.  The 
basis  of  all  is  zinc-white,  which  does  not  turn  yellow 
in  the  way  lead  colours  do,  and  the  quality  depends  to 
a  large  extent  upon  the  varnish  with  which  it  is  mixed. 

Some  people  prefer  that  the  finishing  coat  be 
flatted  (that  is,  mixed  with  turpentine  only),  for  this 
takes  away  the  objectionable  gloss. 

In  rooms  having  exposed  situations  it  is  often  found 
that  considerable  condensation  occurs  on  painted 
walls  owing  to  the  warm  air  of  the  room  striking  the 
surface  of  the  cold  walls,  and  thus  depositing  moisture 
thereon. 

Internal  woodwork  should  usually  be  treated  in  tones 
in  harmony  with  the  surrounding  work,  and  may  be 
finished  with  a  varnished  surface,  when  it  lasts  well 
and  can  be  cleaned  down  with  a  cloth. 

The  present  fashion  of  having  everything  enamelled 
white  has  many  points  to  recommend  it,  for  it  has  to 
be  kept  fairly  clean  or  it  looks  dirty  and  unpleasant. 
Better  value  is  obtained  than  by  using  colours,  and 


THE  INTERIOR 


97 


there  are  no  pitfalls  for  bad  taste  in  comparison  with 
those  which  beset  a  colour  scheme. 

Examples  of  different  methods  of  panelling  are  shown 
on  pages  237,  238,  243,  244,  271,  281,  and  292. 

Doors — The  treatment  of  doors  is  an  important 
matter,  as  they  occupy  a  prominent  position,  and  being 
constantly  in  use  are  brought  much  into  notice. 

They  may  be  from  6  ft.  6  in.  to  7  ft.  in  height  and 
from  2  ft.  6  in.  to  3  ft.  in  width,  and  should  be  hung  so 
as  to  act  as  a  screen  to  the  room  when  opened. 

It  is  well  to  get  away  from  the  ordinary  stock  four- 
panelled  doors  which  are  imported  in  enormous  quan- 
tities from  Sweden. 

As  cheapness  has  to  be  considered  in  many  cases, 
it  would  be  a  negation  of  progress  to  object  to  a 
machine-made  door,  and  we  have  had  to  use  these 
Swedish  doors,  where  clients  would  not  authorize  the 
necessary  expenditure  for  hand-made  work.  Hang- 
ing them  upside  down  gives  a  height  of  about 
4  ft.  5  in.  to  the  top  of  the  lock  rail,  which  looks 
better  than  its  usual  height  of  about  3  ft.  3  in. 
There  are  indeed  machine-made  doors  of  good  de- 
sign, though,  of  course,  a  door  made  to  an  architect's 
design  should  bear  a  character  of  its  own  in  keeping 
with  the  remainder  of  the  house,  and  may  be  likened 
to  a  well-cut  suit  of  clothes  in  comparison  with  a 
ready-made  garment.  A  thickness  of  i|-  in.  is  usually 
sufficient  for  internal  doors,  and  mouldings  are  best 
omitted  in  the  smaller  houses,  as  the  panels  finished 
square  look  well  and  are  more  in  keeping  with  their 
simple  character. 

111.  205  shows  a  birch  door  stained  dark  brown, 
which  contrasts  well  with  the  white  paint  of  the  rest 
of  the  woodwork. 
7 


98  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Ills.  319  and  327  show  ledged  and  braced  doors 
with  strap  hinges  specially  designed  to  give  character 
to  the  houses. 

Plain  brass  rim-locks  and  handles  (111.  236)  with 
simple  finger-plates  give  an  effective  but  quiet  finish 
to  the  door,  and  are  less  expensive  than  mortise 
locks,  and  have  a  decorative  value  not  possessed  by 
the  hidden  character  of  the  latter. 

The  front  entrance  door  should  be  of  ample  width, 
so  as  to  give  an  inviting  appearance  from  the  ex- 
terior ;  and  is  sometimes  designed  in  two  portions  of 
unequal  width,  the  larger  one  for  general  use,  while 
both  may  be  opened  on  occasions  of  entertainment 
when  many  people  are  likely  to  be  using  the  entrance 
(Ills.  233  and  242). 

The  doors  to  the  kitchen,  scullery  and  offices  may 
be  merely  ledged  and  braced  and  provided  with  rim- 
locks  and  Norfolk  latches,  with  cross  garnet  or  strap 
hinges,  which  are  very  suitable  for  the  purpose,  and 
carry  out  the  idea  of  simplicity. 

Windows — The  comparative  advantages  of  sash 
and  casement  windows  have  already  been  dealt  with 
in  chapter  iv.,  page  61,  and  need  not  be  further  dis- 
cussed from  the  internal  point  of  view. 

French  casement  windows  which  extend  to  the 
floor  level  are  sometimes  preferred,  especially  in 
drawing-rooms  or  those  rooms  looking  on  to  a 
garden  ;  so  that  people  sitting  inside  can  get  a 
good  view  and  obtain  easy  access  to  the  garden,  but 
windows  of  this  type  generally  make  the  room  cold 
and  draughty,  and  should  be  used  with  caution. 

Fireplaces — In  no  other  department  of  internal 
design  has  so  much  improvement  been  effected  in 
recent  years  as  in  the  design  of  the  fireplace,  and 


THE  INTERIOR 


99 


as  it  is  the  central  point  of  attraction  in  the  room  it 
certainly  demands  the  best  efforts  of  the  architect. 

Various  kinds  of  grates  and  stoves  are  dealt  with 
in  chapter  xiii.,  page  176,  and  it  is  only  necessary  to 
say  that  as  little  iron  as  possible  should  be  used  in  the 
construction  of  the  fireplace,  and  in  many  instances 
iron  bars  have  been  omitted  altogether  and  the  coals 
placed  direct  on  the  brick  hearth.  It  would  be  in- 
vidious to  point  to  any  special  manufacturer,  as  nearly 
all  now  recoonize  the  fact  that  the  forms  of  o-rate 

o  o 

designed  by  Dr.  Pridgin  Teale  some  years  ago  re- 
present the  scientific  application  of  sound  principles 
to  the  domestic  hearth. 

The  stove  itself  is  frequently  surrounded  by  a  frame 
or  is  treated  in  some  architectural  manner,  as  will  be 
seen  on  reference  to  Ills.  216,  230,  236,  288,  312,  313, 
318,  319. 

The  Dining-room  Ingle-nook  shown  on  plan  in 
111.  233  has  a  grate  w^hich  is  surrounded  by  a  plain 
beaten  copper  frame  and  hood,  as  shown  in  111.  237. 
On  either  side  recesses  are  formed  in  the  wall  for  a 
tobacco  jar  or  the  like,  and  above  are  a  series  of  small 
cupboards  and  openings  for  the  display  of  china. 

The  nook  is  lined  with  red  bricks,  and  with  its 
plain  low  settles  on  either  side  forms  a  really  com- 
fortable louno^e,  with  side  window  for  readino-. 

The  Dining-room  shown  on  plan  in  111.  226  has  a 
more  formal  treatment,  as  seen  in  111.  230,  with  tiled 
surrounds  and  overmantel,  the  space  over  the  ingle 
being  utilized  for  small  cupboards  for  cigars,  etc. 

The  Ingle-nook  in  Inner  Hall  (111.  238)  has  a  "  Tilt- 
fire  "  grate  with  a  beaten  copper  hood,  the  smoke 
being  carried  up  in  the  copper  flue  till  it  reaches  the 
brick  chimney-stack  at  the  first-floor  level.    This  stove 


TOO 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


has  no  mantel,  and  it  can  be  removed  during  the 
summer  months  if  desired. 

The  Dining-room  overmantel  in  a  house  at  Potters 
Bar  (111.  245)  has  panels  into  v^hich  various  coloured 
woods  are  introduced  to  form  a  geometrical  pattern. 

The  Dining-room  Ingle-nook  shown  in  111.  313 
has  a  fire  with  tiled  surround  and  a  plain  overmantel 
carried  up  to  the  picture-rail,  with  small  windows  on 
either  side. 

The  Drawing-room  fireplace  in  111.  236  has  a 
circular  raised  hearth  and  hammered  steel  frame  and 
hood,  above  which  is  a  simple  deal  mantelpiece. 

The  Drawing-room  fireplace  in  111.  194  is  still  more 
formal  in  character,  the  overmantel  being"  desio-ned 
especially  as  a  frame  for  a  picture,  the  whole  being 
enclosed  in  an  architectural  setting,  reminiscent  of  the 
later  Renaissance  manner. 

The  Parlour  fireplace  shown  in  111.  219  has  a 
recess  which  takes  the  place  of  the  overmantel. 

Larger  houses  require  a  more  formal  treatment,  and 
the  Hall  fireplace  in  111.  188  shows  a  dog-grate  sur- 
rounded by  a  treatment  of  Ionic  pilasters  and  entabla- 
ture, and  provided  with  a  sitting  or  club  fender,  which 
is  certainly  a  comfortable  feature  in  a  hall.  The 
Study  (111.  189)  and  Drawing-room  (111.  190)  fire- 
places are  further  examples  to  which  some  archi- 
tectural treatment  has  been  given. 

We  have  now  stated  a  few  general  principles  relating 
to  various  internal  features,  and  have,  in  chapter  xvi., 
discussed  briefly  the  general  scheme  of  decoration 
which  may  be  adopted  in  each  room. 

Ceilings — The  plaster  ceiling  may  be  distempered, 
painted  or  papered.  The  unvarying  monotony  of  the 
old  whitewashed   ceiling   with   its  inartistic  centre 


THE  INTERIOR 


lOI 


flower  is  much  improved  by  the  use  of  moulded 
ceiling  ribs  of  fibrous  plaster  or  modelled  canvas. 
When  ribs  are  used  they  should  have  but  little  pro- 
jection in  order  not  to  bring  down  the  ceiling,  and 
thus  make  a  room  appear  lower  than  it  is. 

Enamelled  metals  are  suitable  for  some  ceilings, 
especially  those  of  dining,  smoking  or  billiard  rooms, 
as  they  effectually  withstand  the  action  of  the  heat, 
aas  fumes  or  smoke,  and  can  be  cleaned  down  with  a 
damp  cloth.  The  plates,  which  are  generally  three  or 
four  feet  square,  have  a  surface  pattern,  and  are  fixed 
to  the  under  side  of  the  joists  or  boarded  ceiling,  the 
joints  between  the  plates  being  covered  with  a 
moulded  rib. 

The  ordinary  plaster  ceiling  may  be  omitted  and 
the  floor  joists  are  then  visible,  as  in  Ills.  31,  195,  229 
and  230,  the  space  between  them  adding  to  the  cubical 
capacity  of  the  room,  instead  of  forming  dust-traps  as 
mentioned  in  chapter  v.,  page  8  r.  This  simple  method 
of  construction  is  effective  and  satisfactory,  the  floor 
timbers  openly  doing  their  work  instead  of  being 
hidden  behind  a  plaster  ceiling. 

The  joists,  which  in  this  type  of  ceiling  should  have 
a  broader  proportion  than  usual  (say  seven  by  four 
inches),  need  not  necessarily  be  planed,  but  can  be 
left  from  the  saw  and  toned  to  a  dark  colour  or  even 
coated  with  Stockholm  tar.  Some  additional  interest 
can  be  given  in  this  type  of  floor  by  arranging  larger 
beams  into  which  the  smaller  joists  can  be  framed,  as 
in  Ills.  196,  312,  317,  318  and  320.  If  this  type  of 
floor  is  adopted,  special  precautions  have  to  be  taken 
to  prevent  the  passage  of  sound  through  the  floor  of 
one  room  to  the  other,  as  mentioned  in  chapter  v., 
page  82. 


CHAPTER  VII 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  FmiNGS 

Sources  of  Supply  (Rain  Water,  Lake  Water,  River  Water,  Spring 
Water,  Well  Water)— Pumps— Artesian  Wells— Physical  Properties — 
Consumption  of  Water  (Impurities,  Distillation,  Boiling,  Nitrification, 
Filtration,  Household  Filters)  —  Examination  —  Storage  —  Hardness — 
Distribution  (Hydraulic  Ram,  Water-wheel  and  Turbine  Pumps,  Under- 
ground Cisterns,  Unions  and  Junctions,  Taps,  Hydrants,  Domestic  Fire 
Extinguishers). 

SOURCES  of  Supply— The    origin    in    the  first 
instance  of  all  sources  of  water  supply  must  be 
the  rainfall,  though  the  actual  source  utilized  for 
methods  of  supply  in  various  instances  may  be  by 
{a)  rain  water  ;    {b)   lake  water  ;    [c)  river  water ; 
{d)  spring  water,  and  {e)  well  water. 

{a)  Rain  Water  itself  is  pure,  and  where  it  does  not 
come  in  contact  with  injurious  matter  it  is  the  best 
form  of  supply,  but  freedom  from  contamination  can 
seldom  be  obtained  except  in  sparsely  populated  and 
rocky  districts. 

The  amount  of  rainfall  per  annum  varies  in  different 
localities  in  the  British  Isles  from  under  twenty-five 
inches  to  over  eighty  inches,  the  lowest  average  fall 
beino-  in  the  south-eastern  counties  of  Eno^land,  and 
the  highest  being  in  the  western  part  of  Scotland. 
Part  of  the  rainfall  sinks  into  the  ground,  and  the 
remainder  is  either  evaporated  or  carried  along  the 
surface  of  the  ofround  to  form  rivers  and  lakes.  Rain 
water   should  never   be  allowed   to  run  to  waste, 

1 02 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  FITTINGS  103 

as  it  is  most  agreeable  for  washing  purposes,  and  in 
some  instances  it  has  to  be  used  for  dietetic  require- 
ments. 

Rain-water  separators,  which  run  the  first  washings 
of  the  roof  to  waste  and  then  divert  the  pure  water  to 
storage,  are  to  be  recommended,  as  they  ensure  the 
supply  being  more  or  less  clean. 

{b)  Lake  Water  derives  its  supply  from  the  surface 
water  previously  mentioned,  and  also  from  springs, 
but  it  is  liable  to  have  foreign  matters  in  suspension 
and  solution. 

{c)  River  Water  is  derived  from  the  same  sources  and 
is  very  liable  to  pollution,  from  animal  and  vegetable 
impurities  and  also  from  the  drainage  of  manured  farm 
land,  etc. 

When,  in  addition  to  this  sewage  from  towns  and 
villages  and  trade  effluents  are  received,  the  danger  of 
this  form  of  supply  is  sufficiently  evident. 


III.  42,    Section  showing  Source  of  Spring  Water. 

(d)  Spring  Water  is  generally  found  where  an  imper- 
vious bed  underlies  porous  strata,  and  an  outlet  is 
obtained  as  at  A  in  111.  42.  The  purity  of  water  from 
this  source  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  through 
which  it  has  passed. 

{e)  Well  Water  may  be  from  either  shallow  or  deep 
wells  ;  that  from  the  former  is  very  liable  to  pollution 
from  organic  matter  washed  through  the  soil.  An 


I04 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


CONCRfTE 


impervious  lining  (steining)  should  always  be  used  for 
these  wells,  to  minimize  the  risk  of  surface  pollution, 

as  shown  at  A  in  111.  43,  and 
this  lininor  should  also  be  taken 
above  the  surface  level  to  pre- 
vent refuse  falling  in  from  the 
top.  A  cover  should  be  pro- 
vided, and  the  water  should,  if 
possible,  be  drawn  up  by  some 
form  of  pump  (three  forms  of 
the  latter  are  shown  in  Ills.  44, 
45  and  46),  and  not  by  the  old- 
fashioned  bucket  and  rope,  as  these  are  liable  to 
become  foul  and  thus  taint  the  water. 

Pumps — 111.  44  shows  a  section  of  an  ordinary 
lifting  pump,  in  which,  as  the  piston  P  is  raised,  the 


III.  43.    Sectiox  of  Well. 


PI3T0N 


III.  44.    Lifting  Pump. 


III.  45.    Force  Pump. 


valve  V  is  opened  and  water  is  drawn  up  into  the 
cylinder,  and  at  the  next  stroke  it  is  drawn  through 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  FITTINGS  105 


J 


PLUM- 


the  valve  W  and  is  thus  conducted  to  the  delivery 
pipe  D.  111.  45  is  a  section  through  a  force  pump,  in 
which  the  plunger  is  solid,  and  the  water  after  being- 
raised  in  the  cylinder  is  forced  up  the 
delivery  pipe  D.  111.  46  is  a  force 
pump  with  a  plunger  in  lieu  of  a  piston, 
and  is  generally  preferred  because  the 
packing  is  easily  renewed. 

Artesian  Wells  —  Deep  wells  are 
often  made  by  artesian  boring,  which 
consists  in  forcing  an  iron  tube  of 
small  diameter  through  the  impervious 
strata  to  the  porous  strata  below,  as 
shown  in  111.  47.  This  was  first  done 
at  Artois,  in  France,  hence  the  name 
artesian.  Water  derived  from  this 
source  is  generally  good  owing  to  the 
depth  from  which  it  is  drawn.  It  will 
be  seen  from  this  sketch  that  the  im- 
pervious strata  (i)  extend  above  the 
level  of  the  sinking,  and  consequently 
the  water  will  be  forced  up  the  pipe  to  the  height  that 
is  anywhere  maintained  in  the  porous  strata.  Borings 
in  sandstone  or  limestone  usually  give  large  and  con- 


CYLINPER 


VALVES 


WATER 


SUCTION 
PIPE 


III.  46.  Force  Pump. 


III.  47.    Artesian  Well. 


stant  supplies,  while  wells  in  shallow  sand  or  gravel 
beds,  and  even  chalk,  often  fail  in  dry  seasons. 

Physical  Properties — A  cubic  foot  of  water  may  be 


io6  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


taken  as  weighing  62*5  lb.  and  a  gallon  as  weighing 
10  lb.  A  fundamental  property  of  the  fluid  is  that 
the  pressure  exerted  by  it  on  any  plane  is  always  in  a 
direction  at  right  angles  to  that  plane,  and  pressure 
exerted  anywhere  on  water  is  transmitted  equally  and 
undiminished  in  every  direction.  Liquids  maintain 
their  level  even  though  the  continuity  of  the  surface 
be  interrupted,  or,  in  more  popular  phraseology,  they 
find  their  own  level.  Water  may  be  taken  for  practical 
purposes  to  be  incompressible,  and  this  property, 
together  with  the  pow^er  of  transmissibil  ty  of  pressure, 
is  advantageously  applied  in  the  hydraulic  ram  dealt 
with  on  page  1 14. 

Consumption  of  Water — It  has  been  computed  that 
the  ancient  Romans  must  hav^  used  over  three 
hundred  gallons  per  head  per  day,  owing  chiefly  to 
their  elaborate  public  baths. 

In  these  days,  however,  from  thirty-five  to  fifty 
gallons  per  head  is  usually  considered  sufficient  in 
towns,  and  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  in  rural  dis- 
tricts. It  is  to  be  hoped,  however,  that  the  question 
of  supply  will  be  looked  upon  in  a  more  generous 
light  in  the  future,  as  the  health  of  a  community  must 
depend  to  a  large  extent  upon  its  water  supply. 

The  following  table  gives  the  daily  average  number 
of  gallons  consumed  per  head  in  several  cities  :  — 


Washington 

Middlesborough-on-Tees 
Karlsruhe  (Germany) 
New  York 
Chicago 
Montreal 
Glasgow 
London 
Paris 


158 

140 
130 
100 
75 
55 
50 

35 

28 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  FITTINGS  107 


Impurities — Water  nearly  always  contains  foreign  matter 
in  suspension  and  solution,  absorbed  gases,  microbes 
and  other  living  organisms,  but  for  dietetic  purposes 
water  should  not  contain  more  than  a  certain  per- 
centage of  these  impurities.  Matters  in  suspension 
may  be  removed  by  filtration  and  settlement,  those  in 
solution  by  distillation,  aeration,  precipitation  and  by 
the  aid  of  nitrifying  organisms.  Absorbed  gases  may 
be  expelled  by  boiling  and  distillation,  and  living- 
organisms  may  be  reduced  by  filtration  and  settle- 
ment. 

Distillation — This  is  effected  by  evaporating  the  water 
and  condensing  the  steam.  Distilled  water  is  unpalat- 
able, but  becomes  less  unpleasant  on  aeration,  which 
may  be  accomplished  by  exposing  it  to  the  air  in  thin 
streams  and  allowing  it  to  drip  over  a  series  of  trays. 

Boiling — This  removes  temporary  hardness  and  de- 
stroys microbes,  but  drinking  water  treated  in  this 
way  also  requires  aeration  afterwards,  otherwise  it  is 
unpleasantly  flat  to  the  taste. 

Nitrification — By  this  process,  owing  to  the  action  of 
microbes,  nitrogenous  organic  matter  is  oxidized  with 
a  formation  of  nitrates. 

Filtration — This  gets  rid  of  suspended  matter  and 
oxidizes  organic  substances.  Dr.  Percy  Frankland 
has  shown  that  over  ninety-five  per  cent  of  microbes 
were  removed  from  Thames  water  by  sand  filtration. 
Sand  filters  are  mostly  used  by  the  larger  water  com- 
panies, and  an  example  is  shown  in  111.  48,  in  which 
C  represents  a  bed  of  clean  sharp  sand  about  three 
feet  six  inches  thick,  D  another  layer  of  sand  some- 
what coarser  than  C  and  about  four  inches  thick, 
E  another  layer  of  sand  still  coarser  than  D  and 
about  three  inches  deep.     F  is  a  bed  of  gravel  about 


io8  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


six  inches  deep,  and  G  is  a  course  of  bricks  laid  with 
open  joints  to  allow  the  water  to  pass  through  to  the 
trough  H,  which  conveys  it  to  the  storage  reservoir. 
Magnetic  carbide  of  iron  covered  with  a  layer  of 
sand  has  also  been  successfully  used  for  filters,  but  to 
be  effective  this  must  be  used  on  the  intermittent 
principle  to  allow  of  aeration. 

Household  Filters — Until  quite  recently  filters  were 
almost  solely  designed  for  the  purpose  of  removing 


III.  48.    Section  of  Sand  Filter. 


suspended  matters,  to  lessen  hardness  and  to  reduce 
the  dansfer  from  oro-anic  matter.  Owino-,  however, 
to  the  fact  that  ordinary  charcoal  filters  are  seldom 
cleaned  because  of  the  troublesome  nature  of  the  pro- 
cess, they  usually  do  more  harm  than  good.  In  fact, 
it  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that  the  old-fashioned 
filter  was  often  a  disseminator  of  disease.  The  re- 
moval of  micro-organisms  has  been  the  objective  of 
the  more  recent  types  of  filters,  and  it  was  mainly 
because  the  old  filters  were  recognized  as  being  merely 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  FITTINGS  109 


breeding-places  for  germs  that  investigations  were 
instituted. 

The  BerHn  Inquiry  of  1886  gave  great  prominence 
to  the  filtration  of  water  for  domestic  purposes,  and 
that  made  for  the  German  War  Office  in  1895  by 
Dr.  Plagge  drew  particular  attention  to  the  Pasteur 
Chamberland  and  Berkefeld  filters. 

The  Pasteur  Chamberland  filter  is  made  of  a  porous 
porcelain  tube  through  which  the  water  is  forced 
under  pressure.  The  residue  left  on  the  outside  of 
the  tubes  can  easily  be  removed,  and  the  tubes  them- 
selves should  be  sterilized  periodically  by  boiling. 

At  Darjeeling  9500  of  these  tubes  are  in  use  in  the 
municipal  water-works,  and  the  supply  given  is  1 50,000 
gallons  a  day. 

The  Berkefeld  filter  is  made  upon  similar  lines,  and 
a  section  is  given  in  111.  49.  The  water  supply  is  con- 
nected by  the  tap  A  and 
flows  into  the  outer  covering 
of  enamelled  iron  through 
the  hollow  cylinder  B,  from 
the  interior  of  which  it  is 
delivered  to  the  outlet  pipe 
C.  By  means  of  the  thumb- 
screws DD  the  cylinder  of 
kieselguhr  may  be  removed 
for  cleansing  or  sterilizing 
by  boiling. 

These  types  of  porcelain 
cylinder  filters  are,  no 
doubt,  efficient  if  the  cylinders  are  kept  thoroughly 
clean.  They  are  known  as  pressure  filters,  as  their 
action  is  due  to  the  force  of  the  water  from  the 


^REW5 


COCK^ 

III.  49.    Berkefeld  Filter. 


mam. 


I  lO 


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A  patent  automatic  self-cleansing  filter  has  been 
recently  introduced,  and  is  said  to  produce  satisfactory 
results.  Ills.  50  and  51  show  the  construction  in 
which  by  opening  tap  B  and  shutting  tap  A  the 


III.  50,    Elevation.  III.  51.  Section. 

Automatic  Self-cleansing  Filter. 


filtered  water  is  obtained.  By  shutting  B  and  open- 
ing A  ordinary  unfiltered  water  is  obtained  for  house- 
hold purposes,  and  the  filter  is  cleansed  thereby 
automatically. 

All  water  for  drinking  purposes  should  be  drawn 
direct  from  the  main  supply  pipe  and  not  from  any 
storage  cistern. 

Examination  of  Water— The  following  simple  tests 
may  be  made  by  any  one.  Samples  should  be  collected 
in  long  tubes  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter  which 
should  have  been  previously  rinsed  out  with  a  little 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid  and  afterwards  with  some  of 
the  water  which  it  is  desired  to  examine.  If  river  or  lake 
water  is  the  subject  of  the  inquiry,  the  samples  should 
be  taken  at  various  points  and  beneath  the  surface,  so 
as  to  exclude  scum,  etc.,  and  a  note  should  be  made 
in  each  instance  of  the  exact  locality  from  whence  they 
are  taken.    The  tubes  should  be  well  stoppered  and 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  FITTINGS  iii 


placed  in  the  light,  but  an  inch  or  two  should  be  left 
from  the  surface  of  the  water  to  the  under  side  of  the 
stopper.  They  should  stand  for  not  less  than  twenty- 
four  hours  and  then  be  examined  to  see  if  veo^etation 
is  encouraged  ;  this  may  be  detected  by  the  smell.  If 
this  is  not  apparent,  slightly  warm  the  tubes  and  test 
them  again.  A  similar  tube  should  be  filled  with 
distilled  water  and  placed  alongside  the  others  on  a 
sheet  of  white  paper  and  the  colours  compared. 

If  a  drop  of  Condy's  Fluid  (permanganate  of 
potassium)  be  placed  in  the  water  and  it  becomes 
bleached  in  a  short  time,  it  is  a  sign  of  the  presence 
of  organic  matter.  A  portion  of  the  water  may  be 
evaporated  and  the  residue  burnt,  when  if  it  blackens 
it  indicates  the  existence  of  animal  organic  matter. 

If  a  sample  of  impure  water  is  put  on  a  gelatine 
film  resting  on  a  plate,  organisms  will  multiply  rapidly 
and  are  easily  discernible  under  the  microscope. 

Storage  of  Water — This  is  best  accomplished,  if  it 
can  be  so  arranged,  in  underground  tanks  (111.  55),  as 
it  is  thus  rendered  more  palatable  by  its  power  of 
assimilatinor  carbonic  acid  eras,  but  care  must  be  taken 
that  there  is  no  possibility  of  pollution. 

Domestic  cisterns  of  lead  should  be  avoided  for  soft- 
water  storaore,  ow^inor  to  the  danorer  of  the  water 
carrying  away  the  soluble  oxide  of  lead  formed 
by  the  action  of  oxygen.  The  lime  in  hard  water, 
however,  forms  a  protective  surface  on  the  lead  and 
there  is  thus  less  danger  in  usino^  it.  Iron  treated 
with  a  coating  of  zinc  (known  as  galvanized  iron) 
should  not  be  used,  as  most  waters  will  dissolve  this 
coating  sooner  or  later. 

Slate  and  earthenware  cisterns  should  be  used 
wherever  possible.     Cisterns  must  be  cleaned  out 


112 


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regularly,  for  they  become  a  depositing  ground  for 
impurities  in  the  water  supply.  All  cisterns  should 
be  covered  to  prevent  their  pollution  by  dust,  dirt  and 
possibly  by  dead  mice  and  birds,  and  they  should 
always  be  ventilated.  An  overflow  pipe  should  be 
provided  with  its  open  end  as  far  as  possible  from 
any  likely  contamination  and  in  such  a  position  that 
any  waste  of  water  may  be  at  once  noticed. 

Hardness  of  Water — This  may  be  either  temporary 
or  permanent.  Temporary  hardness  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  calcic  and  magnesic  carbonates  and  may 
be  overcome  by  boiling,  which  expels  the  carbonic 
acid  and  precipitates  the  carbonates.  Permanent 
hardness  is  due  to  calcic  and  magnesic  sulphates 
which  boilinor  does  not  affect.  Hard  water  will  not 
dissolve  soap  but  precipitates  it,  hence  the  soap  test  is 
now  usually  employed  for  determining  the  hardness  of 
water.  Every  grain  of  calcic  carbonate  or  its  equiva- 
lent in  one  gallon  of  water  constitutes  one  decrree  of 
hardness. 

The  effect  of  hard  water  on  the  health  is  a  debated 
point,  but  from  an  economic  point  of  view  soft 
water  ensures  a  considerable  saving,  and  it  is  said 
that  in  Glasgow,  when  the  soft-water  supply  from 
Loch  Katrine  was  introduced,  a  saving  of  over 
^30,000  in  soap  was  effected  per  annum.  Hard 
water  is  also  responsible  for  the  lime  deposits  formed 
in  boilers,  kettles  and  hot-water  pipes  commonly 
known  as  furring,  and  is  also  unpleasant  for 
domestic  use.  Dyspepsia,  gravel  and  stone  in  the 
bladder,  and  swellings  of  the  glands  have  also  been 
attributed  to  its  use.  The  late  Sir  Douglas  Galton 
suesested  that  10  decrrees  of  hardness  would  satisfy 
the  general  requirements  of  a  town  supply.  Dr. 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  FITTINGS  113 


Clark's  process  for  removing  temporary  hardness 
consists  in  the  addition  of  i  oz.  of  quicklime  to  every 
100  gallons,  by  means  of  which  the  bicarbonate  of 
lime  is  reduced  to  a  carbonate,  which  is  precipitated. 
At  Luton  Hoo  the  hardness  of  the  water  is  reduced 
from  i8|-  degrees  to  4  degrees  by  this  process,  and 
70,000  gallons  can  be  softened  per  diem. 

The  Porter-Clark  is  a  modification  of  this  system, 
the  precipitated  calcic  carbonate  being  removed  by 
cloth  filtration  under  pressure,  thus  avoiding  the  delay 
of  slow  subsidence.  There  are  several  other  systems, 
including  Boby's  simplex  water  softener,  which  latter 
we  have  successfully  employed  in  various  instances. 

Permanent  hardness  of  water  at  Penarth  is  reduced 
from  18  degrees  to  6  degrees  by  the  addition  of  22*5 
lb.  of  lime,  5  lb.  of  soda  and  i  lb.  of  alum  to  every 
10,000  gallons  of  water. 

Distribution — This  is  effected  either  on  the  constant 
or  intermittent  system.  Every  water  company  should 
be  compelled  by  Act  of  Parliament  to  provide  a  con- 
stant supply,  as  it  is  not  only  more  conducive  to 
health,  but  in  the  case  of  outbreaks  of  fire  lack  of 
water  is  a  very  serious  matter.  Even  with  a  constant 
supply  it  is  wise  to  have  a  small  supply  cistern,  as 
the  water  is  sometimes  necessarily  cut  off  for  repairs 
to  mains  and  for  other  causes. 

Lead  pipes  are  generally  used  inside  the  house  and 
are  preferred  by  the  water  companies,  but,  as  pre- 
viously mentioned,  the  lead  is  liable  to  be  dissolved 
if  the  water  is  soft,  and  the  pipes  are  very  liable 
to  damage  owing  to  accidental  penetration  by  nails 
and  screws  used  for  the  finishings  of  the  house.  The 
best  method  is  to  have  a  lining  of  glass  gr  tin,  but 
this  is  somewhat  costly, 
a 


114 


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Water  mains  should  not  be  less  than  four  feet  below 
the  ground  level,  or  they  are  liable  to  be  affected 
by  heat  and  frost.  The  main  pipes  are  usually  of  iron 
coated  with  bitumen,  magnetic  oxide  or  some  preserva- 
tive solution  as  mentioned  in  chapter  viii.,  page  127. 

Stopcocks  should  be  arranged  so  that  any  branch 
supply  may  be  cut  off  from  the  main,  and  all  pipes 
should  be  run  so  as  to  avoid  danger  to  the  supply 
from  frost.  If  it  is  found  necessary  to  place  them  out- 
side the  building,  they  should  be  covered  with  asbestos, 
felt  or  other  non-conducting  material. 

In  country  houses  it  frequently  happens  that  no 
spring  or  water  supply  exists  above  the  level  of 
the  house,  and,  consequently,  water  has  to  be  raised 
by  mechanical  means. 

Hydraulic  Rams  are  sometimes  employed,  their  action 
being  as  follows: — A  supply  pipe  S,  in  111.  52,  is 


III.  52.    Hydraulic  Ram. 


taken  from  the  reservoir  to  the  Air  Vessel  or  ram 
A.  A  finely  balanced  valve  is  fixed  at  V  whose 
weight  is  a  little  greater  than  the  water  pressure 
from  the  reservoir,  and  hence  when  the  water  is 
at  rest  in  the  supply  pipe  the  valve  V  opens 
downwards  and  water  runs  to  waste.  As  the  velo- 
city of  the  water  increases  the  valve  V  is  closed 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  FITTINGS  115 


and  the  momentum  opens  the  valve  W,  and  water 
is  thus  forced  into  the  air  vessel,  in  which  the  air  is 
compressed,  and  by  its  reaction  the  water  is  forced  up 
the  delivery  pipe  D.  The  pressure  in  the  supply  pipe 
is  thus  diminished,  and  both  valves  therefore  fall  and 
the  water  escapes  at  V  until  this  valve  is  again  closed 
by  the  impact  of  the  water  due  to  the  increased  velo- 
city, when  more  water  enters  the  ram  and  is  raised 
higher  in  the  delivery  pipe.  This  action  is  continually 
repeated  while  the  supply  in  the  reservoir  is  main- 
tained. It  is  estimated  that  about  one-eighth  of  the 
water  is  wasted. 

The  following  formula  and  notes  on  the  hydraulic 
ram  may  be  of  use  : — 

When  Q  =  quantity  of  water  used  in  cubic  feet  per 
second, 

h  =  head  of  water  in  feet  (i.e.  difference  in 

level  of  reservoir  and  ram), 
P  =  effective  horse-power ; 

Then  Q  = 

and  P  =  -068  Q  h. 

The  length  of  the  supply  pipe  should  not  be  less 
than  three-quarters  of  the  height  to  which  the  water  is 
to  be  raised. 

The  diameter  of  the  supply  pipe  should  be  equal  to 
I '45^  O,  and  the  diameter  of  the  rising  pipe  should 
equal  "JS^  Q- 

The  contents  of  the  air  vessel  should  be  the  same 
as  that  of  the  rising  tube.  One-seventh  of  the  water 
may  be  raised  to  four  times  the  head  of  the  reservoir, 
or  one-fourteenth  eight  times,  or  one-twenty-eighth 
sixteen  times,  etc. 


ii6  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

Water-wheel  Driving  Pumps,  both  OVershot  and  under- 
shot, may  be  used  for  raising  water,  and  111.  53  gives 
a  sketch  of  the  former  type. 


III.  53.    Water-wheel  Pump. 


Turbine-driven  pumps  are  also  used,  as  shown  in  III. 
54.  Arrangements  may  also  be  made  when  fixing  for 
driving  electric  lighting,  laundry  and  refrigerating 
machinery  from  the  same  turbine  or  wheel. 

When  power  is  being  installed  for  the  production  of 
electricity  for  lighting  purposes,  it  frequently  happens 
that  one  small  motor  can  economically  pump  the  water 
up  to  the  house. 

Windmills  are  sometimes  used  for  pumping  water  ; 
but  if  adopted  the  reservoir  should  be  capable  of 
containing  at  least  one  full  week's  supply.  On  an 
average  it   may  be   taken   that  in   Great  Britain 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  FITTINGS  117 


turbine: 

III.  54.    Turbine-driven  Pump. 


wind  blows  with  a  pressure  of  one  pound  per  square 
foot  for  one-third  of  the  twenty -four  hours. 

Steam  engines  require 
a  good  deal  of  attention, 
and  consequently  are  not 
much  used  for  pumping 
small  supplies  ;  but  the 
introduction  of  gas-pro- 
ducing plants  on  a  small 
scale  has  recently  drawn 
much  attention  to  this 
power  for  pumping  in 
conjunction  with  the  pro- 
duction of  electric  current 
for  illuminating  and  heat- 
ing purposes.  We  deal 
with  producer-gas  plants  in  chapter  xiv.,  page  198, 
which  is  devoted  to  lighting. 

Underground  Cisterns — 111.    55    shows    an  underground 

cistern  circular  in  plan,  bottle-shaped  in  section,  and 

built  of  brickwork  with 
puddled  clay  backing 
and  covered  with  a 
stone  top.  It  is  also 
fitted  with  a  pump,  the 
suction  pipe  of  which 
should  be  kept  up  at 
least  six  inches  from 
the  bottom  of  the  cis- 
tern, so  as  to  prevent 
sediment  being  drawn 


III.  55. 


Underground  Cistern. 

up  the  pipe.  This  should  be  of  iron,  as  a  lead 
pipe  is  liable  to  be  dissolved,  by  the  action  of  the 
water.    Water  stored  in  these  cisterns  is  found  to 


ii8 


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•  EARTHEN-  o 
f"  WARE.  I 

III.  56.  India 
RUBBER  Cone 


be  colder  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter  than 
that  supplied  through  ordinary  town  mains.  They 
should  be  cleansed  at  least  once  a  year, 
access  being  obtained  by  means  of  a 
ladder  from  the  top. 

Unions  and  Junctions  —  111.  56  represents 
an  indiarubber  closet  joint  for  connect- 
ing the  end  of  the  flushing  pipe  with 
the  fitting,  which  is  accomplished  by 
tightly  binding  the  two  ends  of  the 
rubber  cone  with  copper  wire  as  shown 

Closet  Joint.  ^^^^^^  jj^^^^ 

111.  57  shows  the  method  of  con- 
nection between  a  lead  and  iron 
pipe.     An  ordinary  barrel  union 
has  one  end  formed  with  a  male 
screw  for  iron  pipe  {Note. — A  male 
screw^  is  one  cut  on  the  outside  of 
a  pipe,  and  a  female  screw  is  one 
cut  on  the  inside  of  another  pipe) 
and  the  other  end  fitted  with  a  cap 
and  lining,   the  latter   having   a  III.  57.  barrel  union, 
tinned  end  for  connecting  to  a  lead       ^^^^  '^^  1^0^. 
pipe.    The  lining  is  attached  to  the  lead  pipe  by 
means  of  a  wiped  soldered  joint  as  described  on  page 

UNIOM- 

UNION 


LEATHER  *A5n£R 


-TlhtnCD  eriD 


III.  58.    Barrel  Union, 
Iron  to  Iron. 


III.  59.    "Connector"  Joint, 
Iron  to  Iron. 


146  ;  the  screwed  end  is  attached  to  the  wrought-iron 
barrel  by  means  of  a  socket,  as  shown. 

111.  58  shows  a  barrel  union  for  joining  two  iron  pipes. 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  FITTINGS  119 


UNION  > 


III.  60. 


yyipcp  joinp 
Boiler  Screw. 


GRATING 


111.  59  shows  a  connector  joint,  a  type  much  used 
in  hot-water  work.  The  back  nut  is  screwed  on  to 
the  end  of  a  long  thread,  and  the  socket  is  then 
screwed  on  ;  the  pipe  to  be  connected  is  placed  in 
position,  and  the  socket  is  afterwards  screwed  over 
it.  The  back  nut  is  then  screwed  tightly  to  the  end 
of  the  socket,  the  joint  being  made  secure  with  a  pack- 
ing of  red  lead  and  hemp. 

111.  60  shows  a  boiler  screw 
with  cap  and  lining,  in  which 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  fly 
nut  secures  the  fitting  to  the 
cistern,  the  cap  secures  the  lining  to  the  boiler  screw, 
and  the  lead  pipe  is  connected  to  the  lining  by 

means  of  an  ordinary  wiped 
soldered  joint.  Inside  the  cap 
a  leather  washer  is  always 
used,  in  order  to  form  a  per- 
fect joint  between  the  ends 
of  the  lininor  and  the  boiler 
screws. 

111.  61  shows  the  junction 
of  a  waste  to  a  bath,  in  which 
it  will  be  seen  that  this  is 
similar  in  principle  to  that  last 
described,  the  hatched  portion 
representing  the  thickness  of 
the  bath. 

Taps — The  taps  and  other 
by  various  water  companies  vary 
according  to  the  idiosyncrasies  of  their  officials;  hence 
we  often  find  that  those  which  are  permissible  and 
even  recommended  in  some  districts  are  prohibited 
in  others. 


CLEANING 
<^  CAP 

III.  61.    Waste  to  Bath. 


fittings  allowed 


120  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

III.  62  shows  an  ordinary  screw-down  valve  which 
performs  the  functions  of  a  stopcock,  so  as  to  shut  off 
and  regulate  the  supply. 


III.  62.    Stopcock.  III.  63.    Kelvin's  Tap. 

111.  63  shows  a  section  of  one  of  Lord  Kelvin's 
patent  bib-taps,  which  are  made  in  no  less  than  twenty- 
six  different  sizes. 

111.  64  shows  a  quarter-turn  bib-valve,  which  should 
only  be  used  on  a  low-pressure  system,  or  the  pres- 
sure of  water  would  tend  to  open  the  valve,  while 
shutting  it  off  suddenly  might  burst  the  pipe. 


III.  64.    Quarter-turn  III.  65.  Clear-way 

Bib-valve.  Wheel-valve. 

111.  65  represents  the  section  of  a  clear-way  wheel- 
valve,  which  is  useful  in  connectino-  fittinors  where  the 
pressure  is  low,  and  it  is  desirable  that  when  open 
the  valve  should  not  materially  check  the  force  of  the 
supply. 

111.  66  is  a  section  of  a  quick-turn  full- way  valve, 
the  full-way  being  obtained  by  the  extra  sectional  area 
of  the  body  of  the  tap. 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  FITTINGS  121 

111.  67  shows  a  spring  valve,  which  is  sometimes 
used  for  lavatory  basins,  where  the  supply  of  water  is 

PRES3| 


III.  66.    Full-way  Valve.  III.  67.    Spring  Valve. 

limited  and  it  is  desired  that  no  waste  shall  take 
place. 

III.  68  shows  a  bath  fitting  with  a  mixing  box  and 
thermometer,  an  arrangement  which  is  useful  for 
obtaining  water  at  any  required  heat. 


III.  68.    Bath  Fitting.  III.  69.  Flap-valve. 

111.  69  represents  an  ordinary  flap-valve,  which  is 
mostly  used  for  the  ends  of  overflow  pipes  to  prevent 
the  ingress  of  birds,  dirt,  etc.,  and  is  also  useful  in  pre- 
venting cold  weather  affectino-  the  ball-valve. 

111.  70  represents  a  full-way  ball-valve,  which  is  to 
be  recommended  owing  to  its  simplicity  and  to  the 
fact  that  it  acts  directly  and  a  full  supply  is  obtained. 


122  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


This  type  is  particularly  suitable  in  cases  where  only 
a  low  pressure  is  obtainable.  A  pipe  should  be 
carried  from  the  inlet  to  the  bottom  of  the  cistern 
so  as  to  reduce  the  noise  of  the  inrush  of  water. 

Whenever  a  Fuller  bib-tap  or  a  spring  self-closing 
tap  is  used,  they  should  always  be  provided  with  an 


III.  70.    Full-way  Ball-valve. 


air  chamber,  otherwise  their  sudden  closino-  oives  rise 
to  the  loud  knocking  sound  which  is  technically  known 
as  water  hammer.  The  explanation  of  this  is  that 
when  water  issues  from  a  tap  the  whole  body  in  the 
pipe  is  in  motion.    When  a  screw-down  tap  is  closed 


III.  72.    Air  Chamber. 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  FITTINGS  123 

the  motion  of  the  water  is  gradually  arrested.  In  the 
spring  self-closing  types  the  sudden  arrest  of  the  motion 
causes  the  jarring  in  the  pipe  unless  air  ch^mibers  are 
fixed,  but  when  this  is  done  the  air  in  the  chamber  is 
compressed  and  acts  as  a  buffer. 

III.  71  shows  an  air  chamber  when  the  tap  is  on  an 
ascending  pipe,  and  111.  72  when  the  tap  is  on  a 
rising  main  or  on  a  pipe  which  also  supplies  an  upper 
fitting. 

Hydrants — These  are  valves  placed  upon  supply  pipes, 
and  are  used  for  watering  roads,  gardens,  and  for 
extinguishing  fires.  In  towns  hydrants  are  usually 
placed  at  frequent  intervals  along  the  roads.  In  large 
country  houses  it  is  advisable  to  carry  water  mains 
round  the  building  with  hydrants  at  suitable  places, 
and  branches  should  also  be  carried  round  the  interior 
of  the  building  with  hydrants  on  each  floor. 

Domestic    Fire  -  extinguishers — The    old-fashioned  glass 

bottles  containing  chemicals  are  not  to  be  commended, 
but  some  of  the  later  chemical  fire-extinguishers  are 
at  once  handy  and  efficient  if  applied  in  the  early 
stages  of  a  conflagration.  In  some  fire-extinguishers 
sulphuric  acid  mingles  with  bicarbonate  of  soda  in 
solution,  producing  a  large  quantity  of  carbonic  acid, 
which  forces  the  water  out  in  a  violent  stream.  The 
extinguisher  is  set  in  motion  by  the  simple  process  of 
turning  it  upside  down. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


HOUSE  DRAINAGE 

Stoneware  Drain  Pipes  (Joints) — Iron  Drain  Pipes  (Corrosion)— 
Diameter  of  Drain  Pipes — Junctions — Bends— Inspection  Chambers — 
Gully  Traps — Grease  Traps— Channel  Gullies — Surface  Drainage — 
Back-flow  Trap. 

THE  laying  and  inspection  of  underground  drains 
is  considered  in  this  chapter,  and  typical  drain- 
age plans   are    described   and    illustrated  in 
chapter  xi. 

Stoneware  Drain  Pipes — Underground  drains  are 
usually  constructed  of  glazed  stoneware  tested  pipes, 
made  in  two-feet  lengths,  of  cylindrical  form,  with  a 
socket  at  one  end  and  a  spigot  at  the  other  (Ills. 


III.  73.    Drain  laid  on  Concrete  Bed. 


73,  74,  and  75),  both  having  ridges  and  furrows 
formed  on  them,  so  as  to  give  a  key  for  the  jointing 
materials. 

The  inclination  of  the  drain  pipes  should  be  suffi- 
cient to  carry  both  the  liquid  and  solid  matter  away, 
and  it  is  generally  agreed  that  a  rate  of  4  ft.  6  in. 
per  second  is  the  best  velocity  for  this  purpose,  but 
where  a  separate  system  of  drainage  for  sewage  and 

124 


HOUSE  DRAINAGE  125 

rain-water  is  constructed,  such  a  high  velocity  is  not 
necessary,  and  2  ft.  6  in.  to  3  ft.  per  second  is 
quite  sufficient. 

The  pipes  should  be  truly  laid  and  securely  jointed, 
and  should  have  a  fall  of  at  least  i  in  40  (i.e.  3  in. 
in  10  ft.)  for  4-in.  pipes,  i  in  60  for  6-in.  pipes, 
and  I  in  90  for  9-in.  pipes.  In  towns  it  is  not 
always  possible  to  obtain  such  a  fall,  and  with  4-in. 
pipes  one  often  has  to  be  content  with  2^  in.  or 
even  2  in.  in  10  ft. 

All  drains  should  be  laid  in  as  straight  a  line  as 
possible,  thus  shortening  their  length,  facilitating  in- 
spection and  ensuring  that  the  excreta  will  be  carried 
away  quickly. 

The  pipes  should  be  laid  to  the  required  fall  on 
a  bed  of  Portland  cement  concrete,  6  in.  in  thick- 
ness, as  shown  in  111.  73.  They  are  laid  in  position 
commencing  at  the  lower  end  of  the  drain,  the  spigot 
end  being  placed  in  the  socket  of  the  pipe  next  below 
it,  care  being  taken  that  the  bore  of  adjacent  pipes  is 
concentric.  The  space  underneath  the  pipe  should 
then  be  packed  up  carefully  with  concrete,  so  that  not 
merely  the  socket  but  the  whole  length  of  the  pipe 
may  be  supported,  otherwise  any  weight  from  above 
would  be  liable  to  cause  a  fracture  to  the  pipe. 

The  jointing  of  drain  pipes  requires  the  greatest 
care,  for  the  drains  may  be  in  perfect  alignment 
upon  a  solid  bed  of  concrete,  but  the  drainage  system 
is  bound  to  be  faulty  if  the  joints  between  the  pipes 
are  not  absolutely  water-tight. 

Joints — The  best  joint  is  that  formed  with  Portland 
cement,  which  is  placed  round  the  socket  before 
the  spigot  is  pressed  into  position.  The  inside  of 
the  pipe  should  then  be  carefully  cleaned  out  by 


126 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


■Z-0- 


jjiimiiiiiii"   '"■'III 

-aOCKCT  EMP    SPIGOT  LW^ 


CEMENT 


COMPOSITION 

y//////////^M^////////////////\ 

Ills.  74  and  75. 
Stanford's  Joint. 


means  of  india-rubber  cylinders,  in  order  to  clear 
away  any  cement  which  may  have  passed  into  the 
pipes,  and  a  fillet  of  cement  is  then  formed  round  the 
outside  of  the  joint,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  on 

111.  75. 

There  are  various  patent  methods  for  making 
joints.     ''Stanford's"  joint,  shown  in  Ills.  74  and  75, 

^   has  a  composition  of  coal  tar, 

sulphur  and  ground  pottery 
formed  on  the  spigot  and 
socket  ends  of  the  pipes,  which 
are  then  greased  and  fitted  one 
into  another.  This  ball-and- 
socket  principle  allows  for  a 
certain  amount  of  deflection, 
and  prevents  the  possibility  of  obstruction  by  the 
cement  of  the  outer  joint  passing  into  the  drain. 
Doulton's  patent  self-adjusting  joint  is  also  very  useful 
in  relaying  drains  where  the  flow  of  sewage  cannot  be 
altogether  stopped,  such  as  in  large  buildings. 

Iron  Drain  Pipes— Iron  pipes  are  preferred  by  some 
architects,  especially  for  drainage  under  houses,  one 
of  the  advantages  being  that  there  are  fewer  joints  ; 
but  as  the  internal  surface  of  glazed  stone- 
ware pipes  is  practically  indestructible, 
their  use,  if  encased  all  round  with  six 
inches  of  concrete,  makes  a  good  system. 

Iron  pipes  are  obtained  in  nine-feet 
lengths,  bends  and  junctions  being  made 
of  similar  pattern  to  those  for  stoneware 
pipes.  The  joints  are  formed  with  gaskin 
run  in  with  molten  lead  and  well  caulked  caulked  Lead 
(111.  76).  Such  pipes  are  sometimes  neces-  Joint. 
sary  in  deep  basements,  or  in  places  where,  owing  to 


III.  76. 


HOUSE  DRAINAGE 


127 


the  depth  of  the  sewer,  the  pipes  have  to  be  slung 
to  the  walls. 

Corrosion — Iroii  pipes  should  be  subjected  to  some 
process  to  retard  corrosion.  In  the  Bower- Barff  process 
the  pipes  are  raised  to  a  very  high  temperature  and 
treated  for  some  twelve  hours  to  the  action  of  super- 
heated steam,  which  coats  them  with  a  black  oxide  of 
iron.  Dr.  Angus  Smith's  system  consists  in  heating 
the  pipes  to  a  certain  degree,  and  then  they  are 
dipped  in  a  special  solution,  which  is  said  to  preserve 
them  for  at  least  forty  years.  Iron  pipes  lined  with 
glass  or  lead  are  made,  but  expense  debars  them  from 


general  use. 


Diameter  of  Drain  Pipes — The  internal  diameter  of 
drain  pipes  for  ordinary  dwelling-houses  is  usually 
four  inches,  and  as  this  size  with  a  fall  of  i  in  40 
can  discharge  140  gallons  per  minute,  which  is  never 
likely  to  be  exceeded  in  an  ordinary  dwelling-house, 
it  is  sufficient. 

The  bore  of  the  pipes  should  be  kept  as 
small  as  possible  having  regard  to  the  amount 
to  be  discharged,  for  a  pipe  discharging  nearly 
full-bore  is  self-cleansino^.  The  size  of  the 
pipes  must,  however,  be  increased  as  they 
eet  nearer  the  sewer  and  receive  branch 
drains.  This  difference  in  the  diameter  of 
the  pipes  may  be  effected  by  means  of  taper  taper 
pipes  as  shown  in  111.  77.  pii'e. 

Taper  half-pipes  in  manholes  may  be  used  as  shown 
in  Ills.  81  and  82. 

Junctions  are  necessary  when  one  line  of  pipe  is  to 
be  connected  to  another,  and  they  may  be  formed  as 
single  or  Y-j unctions  shown  in  111.  78,  so  that  the 
sewage  will  enter  the  main  pipe  in  the  direction 


128  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

of  the  fall,  thereby  minimizuig-  any  chance  of  back 
flow. 


III.  78.    Single  or  Y-Junction. 

Bends  are  necessary  where  the  drain  makes  any 
change  in  direction,  and  are  made  of  various  curva- 
tures to  suit  special  circumstances,  a  right-angle  bend 
being  shown  in  111.  79.  The  pedestal  "bend"  shown 
in  111.  80  is  made  in  order  to  take  the  discharge  of  the 


III.  79.    Right-angled  Iron  Bend.        III.  80.    Pedestal  Bend. 

vertical  soil  pipe  where  it  meets  the  ground  drainage, 
and  it  has  a  horizontal  base  fixed  to  it,  so  that  a 
direct  seatinor  can  be  obtained  on  the  concrete  bed 
which  is  laid  to  receive  it. 

Inspection  Chambers — Although  a  system  of  drainage 
may  be  faultless,  yet  in  practice  it  is  found  necessary 


HOUSE  DRAINAGE 


to  have  means  of  access  at  certain  points  so  that  any 
obstruction  can  be  removed  with  drain  rods.  This  is 
all  the  more  necessary,  because  a  water-closet  pan  is 
regarded  by  many  servants  as  the  proper  receptacle 
for  all  kinds  of  articles,  which  on  passing  into  the 
drains  cause  them  to  be  blocked. 

Inspection  chambers  or  manholes  as  they  are 
commonly  called  should  therefore  be  formed  at  cer- 
tain points,  so  that  the  whole  drainage  system  can  be 
thoroughly  overhauled  if  required,  and  each  separate 
section  may  be  tested  at  any  period  at  or  subsequent 
to  its  construction.  Where  two  or  more  branch  pipes 
join  the  main  drain,  as  in  111.  135,  an  inspection 
chamber  should  be  provided  ;  and,  in  planning  the 
system,  care  should  be  taken  to  bring  as  many 
branches  as  possible  into  each  inspection  chamber, 
and  thus  save  unnecessary  expense. 

Ills.  81  and  82  show  a  plan  and  sectional  elevation 
of  an  inspection  chamber,  which  should  be  built  in 


III.  81.    Plan.  III.  82.    Sectional  Elevation. 

Inspection  Chamber. 

white  glazed  bricks  laid  in  cement  mortar,  a  bed  of 
concrete  one  foot  in  thickness  being  formed  under- 
neath the  whole  area  of  the  chamber.    The  glazed 
9 


(1 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


bricks  are  used  so  that  splashings  can  be  periodically 
washed  off  with  a  hose,  but  if  they  are  too  expen- 
sive, stock  or  Fletton  bricks  finished  with  a  cement 
face  may  be  substituted. 

The  drain  is  continued  through  the  manhole  in 
channel  pipes  (i.e.  half-pipes),  as  shown  in  111.  83,  or 
in  three-quarter  pipes,  as  shown  in  111.  84,  which  latter 

III.  83.    Channel  Pipe.  III.  84.    Channel  Pipe. 

are  used  for  bends  to  lessen  the  liability  of  overflow, 
as  shown  in  111.  82. 

The  junction  between  the  circular  drain  pipe  and 
the  channel  pipe  is  generally  made  at  the  inside  face 
of  the  manhole  wall  by  means  of  a 
channel  bend.     111.  85  shows  a  pipe 
sometimes  used,  the  flat  portion  oroina- 

ILL.  05.      INSPEC-  11-1  .  ^ 

tion  Chamber-  through  the  wall  Without  necessitating 
Junction.  much  cutting  to  the  brickwork. 
The  branch  drains  enter  at  various  angles  (111.  81) 
and  discharge  into  the  curved  channel  pipes  in  the 
inspection  .  chamber  so  as  to  direct  the  flow  with- 
out splashing  and  with  as  little  friction  as  possible. 
The  pipes  are  set  in  the  cement  concrete  forming 
the  floor,  which  should  be  benched  up  (111.  82)  in 
neat  Portland  cement,  so  that  in  case  of  splashing  the 
sewage  is  thrown  back  to  the  channels. 

The  various  kinds  of  traps  for  the  disconnection  of 
drains  are  considered  on  page  132,  but  it  is  necessary 
to  refer  here  to  the  interceptor  trap,  which  is  placed 
on  the  sewer  side  of  the  lowest  manhole,  as  shown  in 
Ills.  82  and  86.  It  should  have  an  inspection  eye  pro- 
vided with  an  air-tight  plug  (as  shown  in  111.  86), 


HOUSE  DRAINAGE 


III.  86.    Interceptor  Trap. 


which  is  useful  in  case  of  a  stoppage  between  the 
disconnecting  trap  and  the  sewer,  as  the  plug  can 
be  removed  and  drain  rods 
inserted. 

There  is  a  disadvantage 
in  having  a  fixed  plug,  as  if 
stoppages  occur  in  the  dis- 
connecting trap  this  would 
probably  not  be  detected 
until  the  drain,  together  with 
the  inspection  chamber,  was 
charged  with  sewage,  which  would  necessitate  the 
baling  out  of  the  manhole  before  the  plug  could  be 
released.  This  difficulty  is  now  obviated 
by  means  of  a  patent  gun-metal  cap  (111. 
87)  with  a  lever  which  releases  a  plug 
attached  to  a  chain  hooked  close  to  the 
manhole  cover  and  released  as  required, 
TERCEPTOR  allowiug  the  plug  to  fall  out  and  the  drain 

Stopper.  ^j^^^  j^g^jf-^ 

Drain  rods  enable  any  of  the  drains  that  discharge 
into  the  manhole  to  be  immediately  unstopped,  and 
this  is  the  chief  value  of  manholes,  though  as  mentioned 
in  chapter  x.,  page  155,  they  are  also  useful  as  a  means 
of  distributing  a  current  of  air  through  the  drains. 
Their  initial  cost  is  saved  many  times  over,  for  when 
a  stoppage  occurs  it  is  not  necessary  to  break  up  the 
ground  in  various  places  in  order  to  clear  the  drain. 


IMSPCCTION 
CAP 

III.  87.  In- 


Ill.  88.  Manhole 
Cover. 


III.  89.    Manhole  Cover 
for  internal  use. 


132 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Inspection  chambers  should  have  air-tight  covers 
(III.  88)  held  down  by  four  gun-metal  screws  and 
fitted  with  india-rubber  joints  and  grooves  to  be  filled 
with  grease,  soft-soap  and  sand.  The  cover,  shown 
in  111.  89,  is  specially  designed  for  fixing  inside  houses 
and  in  positions  where  it  is  essential  that  the  cover 
be  absolutely  air-tight.  In  the  country  an  open  grid 
with  a  wrought-iron  dirt  box  below  which  prevents 
anything  falling  into  the  manholes  may  be  used,  as 


III.  90,    Open  Grid  Cover.  III.  91.    Inspection  Pipe. 

shown  in  111.  90,  and  in  this  case  the  grid  forms  the 
air  inlet  to  the  drains  and  no  inlet  pipe  is  required. 

Inspection  pipes  (111.  91)  are  occasionally  used  in 
a  long  section  of  drainage,  where  it  is  not  considered 
necessary  to  go  to  the  expense  of  an  inspection 
chamber. 

Gully  Traps— Gully  traps  are  required  at  the  feet  of 
rain-water  pipes,  and  waste  pipes  from  baths,  lava- 
tories, and  sinks,  in  order  to  disconnect  them  from 
the  ground  drains,  and  if  the  latter  are  properly 
ventilated  the  water  seal  in  the  traps  effectually 
accomplishes  this  disconnection,  a  current  of  fresh 
air  being  allowed  to  pass  up  the  vertical  pipes  and 
thus  keep  them  thoroughly  ventilated. 

There  are  various  kinds  of  traps, 
and  we  will  firstly  mention  those  of 
a  bad  form  which  are  still  found  in 
many  old  houses. 
irL.'"92.  LrpTRAP.      The  "Lip"  trap  (111.  92)  was  made 


HOUSE  DRAINAGE 


133 


in  cast-iron,  but  was  a  bad  form  owing  to  the  many 
corners  for  the  collection  of  sewage,  and  having  no 
socket,  it  was  difficult  to  connect  it 
properly  with  drainage  pipes. 

111.  93  shows  another  bad  gully 
trap,  because  it  is  not  self-cleans- 
ing, as  the  flat  bottom  forms  a  re- 
ceptacle for  the  collection  of  filth,  as 
shown. 

The  siphon  or  U  trap  (111.  94)  ^^"^^ 

1  1     r  1  J  OF  Gully. 

was  an   early  and   frequently  used 
form  ;  but  it  is  insanitary  owing  to  the  quantity  of 
water  it  contains,  so  that  an  ordinary  flush  from  a 

lavatory  or  water- 
closet  does  not  clear 
out  the  solids  remain- 
ing in  the  bottom  of 
the  trap.  The  intro- 
iLL.  94.  u  Trap.  duction  of  an  inspec- 

tion pipe,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  only  makes 
matters  worse,  as  the  solids  are  pushed  up  into  it 
and  can  only  be  removed  with  drain  rods  from 
above. 

The  bell  trap  (111.  95)  was  formerly 
much  used  for  yards  and  scullery  sinks. 
It  is  a  bad  form,  being  non-cleansing, 
besides  which  if  the  bell  is  removed 
there  is  direct  communication  with  the 
drain. 


GRATING 


Having  dealt  with  the  defects  of  the 


III.  95. 
Bell  Trap. 


older  forms  of  traps,  we  may  now  dis- 
cuss those  which  are  designed  to  keep  their  seal  and 
be  as  far  as  possible  self-cleansing. 

Gully  traps  are  now  usually  made  as  shown  in 


134  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

111.  96,  which  is  made  for  receiving  the  discharge  from 
a  rain-water  pipe  (or  the  waste  from  baths  or  lavatories) 
by  means  of  a  back  inlet.    The  rain-water  in  this  case 


CLEANING/^ 


OUTLEIT 


III.  96.  Back-inlet 
Gully. 


III.  97.    Section  of 
ORDINARY  Gully. 


is  led  into  the  trap  under  an  iron  grating  in  order  to 
prevent  splashing,  but  some  Local  Authorities  insist 
that  it  shall  discharge  over  the  gully,  as  in  111.  97. 

Grease  Traps — Grease  traps  are  used  to  receive  the 
discharge  from  scullery  sinks  in  order  to  prevent 
grease  entering  the  drains.  The  objection  to  all 
grease  traps,  however,  is  that  if  not  frequently  cleaned 
out  they  become  little  cesspools.  Many  authorities 
consider  that  in  ordinary  dwelling-houses  it  is  better  to 
have  a  gully  provided  with  a  flushing  rim,  and  with 
an  automatic  flushing  tank  in  connection. 

In  hotels  and  large  mansions 
some  people  consider  grease  traps 
necessary,  as  the  amount  of  grease 
and  dirt  discharged  from  scullery 
sinks  is  very  great  and  might 
soon  clog  up  the  drains. 

Grease  traps  should  consist  of 
a  receptacle  large  enough  to  col- 
lect the  fat  from  the  greasy  water 
which  is  brought  into  it  by  the 
sink  waste.  Dean's  grease  trap 
(111.  98)  is  one  of  many  patents  which  have  this  object 


INLCT 


OUTGO 


III. 

Dean's  Grease  Trap. 


HOUSE  DRAINAGE 


135 


INLET 


in  view.  The  sink  waste  discharges  by  means  of  a 
back  inlet,  and  owing  to  the  depth  of  the  seal  the 
floating  grease  is  prevented  to  a  large  extent  from 
going  into  the  drain.  The  re- 
movable tray  which  rests  on 
the  bottom  of  the  trap  is  pro- 
vided with  a  long  handle  by 
means  of  which  it  can  be  raised  ; 
the  solid  matters  and  congealed 
grease  can  then  be  removed 
from  it. 

111.  99  shows  a  grease  trap 
made  by  Messrs.  Winser  and 
Co.,  in  which  the  greasy  water 
is  discharged  below  the  water-line,  thus  leaving  a  still 
wider  space  for  the  congealed  grease. 

Channel  Gullies — The  Local  Government  Board's 
recommendation  that  all  wastes  should  discharge  over 
an  open  channel  connected  with  a  trapped  gully,  as 
shown  in  111.  100,  is,  however,  probably  the  most 
hygienic  way  of  treating  sink  wastes.  Duckett's  self- 
cleansing  channel  gully  consists  of  an  open  glazed 
channel  in  connection  with  an  ordinary  form  of  gully 
trap,  in  which  the  grease  from  the  sink-water  has  time 

to     congeal  while 


III.  99. 

Winser's  Grease  Trap. 


BATHj^I'IrwpI  ;  I  LAVA 


WASTE. 


III.  100.    Channel  Shoe 


passing  towards  the 
trap.  The  grease  is 
visible,  and  if  not 
cleared  away  fre- 
quently gives  rise  to 
smells  which  draw 
attention  to  it, 
whereas  the  ordin- 
ary grease  trap  ful- 


136 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


fils  that  condition  which  is  always  insanitary,  viz. 
''out  of  sight  out  of  mind." 

111.  loo  shows  a  channel  shoe  and  gully  trap,  in 
which  the  waste  water  from  a  bath,  rain-water  pipe 
and  lavatory  is  discharged  by  means  of  a  three-way 
head  into  an  open  shoe  and  thence  to  the  gully  trap. 

In  this  case  an  iron  orrid  is 
used  if  the  trap  is  to  receive 
surface  water  from  the  yard, 
in  order  to  prevent  debris  find- 
ing its  way  into  the  drain. 

The  flushing  gully  shown 
III.  loi.    Flushing  Gully.     j^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^ 

sink  wastes,  beino-  connected  at  the  back  with  a 
flushing  tank  holding  some  thirty  gallons,  which  dis- 
charges automatically  at  intervals  and  helps  to  keep 
the  drains  clean. 

Surface  Drainage — Yards,  areas  and  other  open 
spaces  are  drained  by  having  their  surfaces  sloped 
towards  gully  traps,  which  should,  generally  speaking, 
be  made  to  receive  as  much  water  as  possible  from 
baths  and  lavatories,  so  that  it  may  be  kept  sealed 
during  dry  weather.  In  positions  where  many  leaves 
fall  or  much  waste  paper  is  blown  about,  gullies 
should  be  protected  with  wire  cages. 

Many  traps  are  made  with  inspection  eyes,  so  that 
if  a  stoppage  occurs  it  can  easily 
be  removed  by  means  of  drain 
rods.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that 
to  pass  a  drain  rod  from  above 
through  the  curved  space  forming 
the  trap  is  somewhat  difficult, 
and  111.  1 02  shows  an  air-tight 
stopper  on  the  drain  side  of  the 


III.  102. 
Inspection  Gully. 


HOUSE  DRAINAGE 


137 


trap  which  can  be  removed  and  the  drain  rods  inserted 
without  going"  through  the  trap.  There  is,  however, 
always  a  danger  that  this  may  become  unsealed  and 
leave  the  outlet  in  direct  communication  with  the 
drain. 

111.  98  shows  a  gully  which  can  be  used  to  prevent 
sand  and  grit  from  entering  the  drain,  and  this  form 
is  also  useful  in  the  basements  of  large  warehouses,  so 
that  when  the  floor  is  washed  down  the  dirt  falls  into 
the  removable  tray. 

Stables  should  have  no  gullies  inside  the  building, 
the  drainage  being  led  to  outside  gullies  in  open 
channels,  which  can  be  washed  down 
with  a  hose-pipe. 

111.  103  shows  a  stable  gully  with 
a  perforated  bucket  designed  to  inter- 
cept particles  of  straw  which  may 
have  passed  through  the  top  grating, 
not  shown  on  the  illustration. 

Stable  drainage  is   dealt  with  in 
chapter  xx.,  page  369,  and  a  typical  stable  drainage 
plan  is  described  in  chapter  xi.,  page  164. 

Back-flow  Trap — Before  passing  from  this  subject, 
attention  should  be  drawn  to  the  prevention  of  what 

is  known  as  back  flow, 
or  the  return  of  sewage 
back  to  the  house  drain- 
age, which  is  liable  to 
occur  where  the  main 
drain  is  not  of  sufficient 

III.  104.    Back-flow  Trap.         ^^^^^      3^^^^.^  immunity 

from  floods.  111.  104  show^s  an  intercepting  trap  in 
which  floats  a  copper  ball.  In  the  event  of  any  back 
flow  this  eflectively  stops  up  the  opening  on  the  house 


III.  103. 
Stable  Gully. 


138  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

side  of  the  drain.  In  case  of  stoppage  the  iron  cover 
can  be  removed  and  the  drain  rods  easily  inserted. 

The  traps  dealt  with  in  this  chapter  are  those  which 
occur  in  the  system  of  house  drainage  outside  the 
building;  those  fixed  inside  the  building  are  described 
in  chapter  ix.  For  typical  drainage  plans  the  reader 
is  referred  to  chapter  xi. 


CHAPTER  IX 


SANITARY  FITTINGS 

General  Principles — Water-closets  (Pan,  Long  Hopper,  Wash-out, 
Short  Hopper,  Wash-down,  Valve,  Siphonic)  — Urinals — Flushing  Cisterns 
— Soil  Pipes  (Joints  between  Lead  and  Earthenware  ;  Lead  and  Iron 
Pipes  compared) — Baths — Lavatories — Sinks  (Scullery,  Housemaid's, 
Butler's) — Expansion  Joints. 

GENERAL  Principles — Sanitary  fittings   of  all 
kinds  should,  where  possible,  be  fixed  against 
an  external  wall,  so  as  to  avoid  danger  from 
internal  soil  or  waste  pipes. 

The  position  of  lavatories,  bathrooms,  and  water- 
closets  in  relation  to  the  other  parts  of  the  house 
has  been  dealt  with  in  chapter  iii.,  and  the  neces- 
sity for  making  the  walls  and  floors  of  non-porous 
materials  is  referred  to  in  chapter  vi.  All  apartments 
should  be  well  lighted  and  ventilated,  for  when  light 
is  abundant  cleanliness  is  as  a  rule  the  result.  The 
casings  or  wooden  enclosures  which  were  formerly 
considered  necessary  to  conceal  closets,  baths  or  lava- 
tory basins  are  now  dispensed  with,  for  they  simply 
harbour  dirt  and  vermin,  and  answer  no  useful  purpose. 

All  sanitary  fittings — W.C.'s,  baths,  lavatories — 
should,  where  possible,  for  the  sake  of  economy,  be 
placed  over  each  other  on  the  different  floors. 

Water-closets — Water-closets  are  the  most  import- 
ant of  all  sanitary  fittings,  their  efficiency  depending 
on  the  way  the  pan  and  trap  fulfil  certain  sanitary 
requirements. 

The  pan  must  be  made  of  impermeable  material 

139 


140 


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such  as  g-lazed  stoneware,  and  so  formed  that  it  can 
be  thoroughly  flushed  and  retain  a  sufficient  depth 
of  water  to  prevent  fouHng.  It  is  found,  moreover, 
that  if  the  excreta  be  thoroughly  covered  with  water 
before  being  discharged  into  the  soil  pipe  there  is  less 
likelihood  of  the  fouling  of  the  drainage  system. 

The  water-closet  trap  should  be  of  a  simple  self- 
cleansing  form,  fixed  above  the  floor  so  as  to  be  easily 
accessible,  and  should  have  a  minimum  water  seal  of 
i|-  in.  to  2  in.  It  should  be  protected  against  siphon- 
age  by  being  ventilated  at  its  outgo,  as  described  in 
chapter  x.,  p.  158.  The  basin  and  trap  are  sometimes 
made  of  the  same  piece  of  earthenware,  but  in  other 
cases  the  trap  is  made  separately  of  lead  or  iron.  The 
separate  trap,  as  shown  in  111.  108,  allows  the  pan  to 
be  removed  in  case  of  damage  without  opening  up 
communication  with  the  drains. 

The  insanitary  forms  of  water-closet  have  been 
generally  discarded,  but  being  still  found  in  old  houses 
are  here  briefly  described,  in  order  to  enable  the  reader 
to  appreciate  the  advantages  of  modern  types. 

The  Pan  closet  (111.  105),  with 
iron  container  and  lead  D-trap, 
was  undoubtedly  a  bad  type, 
takinor  its  name  from  the  hinoed 
copper  pan  which  requires  a 
^nTAineiz.  space  to  swing  in,  called  the 
"container."  When  the  closet 
P  TeAP't^y^^^**?  flushed  a  large  part  of  the 

container  was  not  reached  by 
the  water,  but  became  more  and 

III.  105.    Pan  Closet.  _     ,         ,      .  , 

more  foul  each  time  the  ap- 
paratus was  used.  A  D-trap  (the  disadvantages  of 
which  are  described  in  chap,  x.,  p.  157)  was  also  pro- 


SANITARY  FITTINGS 


141 


vided  as  shown,  but  this  being  as  a  rule  unventilated 
it  formed  another  collecting  space  for  foul  gases,  which 
were  ready  to  pour  into  the  house 
whenever  the  pan  was  lowered. 
Only  those  who  have  inspected  a 
pan  closet  with  D-trap  will  realize 
its  danger  and  the  necessity  for  the 
removal  of  such  a  form  of  closet. 

The  Long-hopper  closet  (111.  106)  was 
another  insanitary  fitting,  the  water 
being  introduced  by  means  of  a  spiral 
flush  which  only  half  cleansed  the 
pan  ;  the  latter  was  continually  soiled 
because  the  water  area  at  the  bottom  long-hopper  Closet. 
of  the  basin  was  not  of  sufficient  capacity  to  catch 
the  excreta. 

The  Wash-out  closet  (111.  107)  secured  the  favour 
of  sanitarians  some  years  ago,  but  must  be  condemned, 


III.  106. 


III.  107.    Wash-out  Closet. 


III.  108.    Short-hopper  Closet. 


for  the  water  in  the  basin  is  too  shallow,  and  the  ex- 
creta, instead  of  being  forced  straight  down  the  trap, 
was  dashed  against  the  outgo,  which  was  in  conse- 
quence fouled,  as  marked  on  the  illustration. 

Having  discussed  the  foregoing  insanitary  types,  we 
can  now  deal  with  the  more  modern  fittings. 

The  Short -hopper  (111.  108)  is  an  improvement,  but 


142 


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the  water  area  at  the  bottom  being  only  about  4  in. 
in  diameter,  the  basin  still  becomes  fouled. 

The  Wash-down  (111.  109)  is  a  great  improvement 
on  the  short-hopper  and  is  the  simplest  and  best  form 

of  closet  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses. It  is  usually  made 
of  a  pedestal  shape  with 
large    flushing   rim,  and 


III.  109.    Wash-down  Closet. 


requires  no  enclosure,  but 
is  provided  with  a  lift-up 
seat,  hinged  to  fall  back 
when  used  as  a  urinal.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  water  area  is  as  laro-e  as 
possible  in  order  to  catch  and  submerge  the  excreta, 
which  can  then  flow  into  the  drain  without  fouling  the 
pan,  as  mentioned  on  page  140. 

111.  1 10  shows  the  Simplicitas 
closet  with  a  large  water  area  of 
io|-  in.  by  6f  in.,  and  an  anti- 
siphonage  pipe  (A)  the  use  of  which 
is  dealt  with  in  chapter  x.,  page  158. 
It  is  placed  not  less  than  3  in.  or 
more  than  12  in.  from  the  highest 
point  of  the  trap.    The  illustration  shows  the  flushing 

pipe,  which  usually  has  an 
internal  diameter  of  in., 
and  connects  the  cistern 
with  the  flushino^  rim  of  the 
pan. 

The  Bracket  closet  (111. 
Ill)  is  an  improvement  on 
^FLoog.LinE:  the  ordinary  "wash-down," 
and    has    been  employed 
in  many  hospitals.  Being 


III.  no. 

Simplicitas  Closet. 


III.  III.    Bracket  Closet 


SANITARY  FITTINGS  143 

built  into  the  wall  and  thus  supported  above  the  floor, 
it  enables  the  latter  to  be  properly  washed  and  obviates 
any  accumulation  of  dirt  around  the  pedestal. 

The  Valve  closet  (Ills.  112  and  113)  is  another  form 
of  a  more  complicated  nature  which  is  preferred  by 
some,  but  as  a  wooden  casing  is  usually  considered 
necessary  to  conceal  the  mechanism,  it  sometimes  also 
hides  a  eood  deal  of  dirt.  Another  disadvantao^e  is 
that  the  supply  of  water  is  not  regular  but  dependent 
on  the  person  using  the  lever,  whereas  in  the  ordi- 
nary wash-down  closet  one  pull  of  the  handle  empties 
the  contents  of  the  flushing  cistern  into  the  basin. 
The  water  for  flushing  this  form  of  closet  should  be 
obtained  from  a  special  cistern  properly  disconnected 
from  that  which  supplies  the  water  service  of  the 
house. 

Ills.  112  and  113  show  the  Optimus  valve  closet, 
which  consists  of  three  parts  :  the  pan  (A),  the  valve- 


III.  112.    Elevation.  III.  113.  Section. 

Hellyer's  Optimus  Valve  Closet. 

box  (B),  and  the  lead  anti-D-trap  (C).  The  advan- 
tages claimed  for  this  type  are  the  large  amount  of 
water  for  catching  the  excreta,  the  double  water-seal 
giving  additional  security  if  the  closet  remains  unused 


144 


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for  some  time,  and  the  noiseless  action  in  comparison 
with  the    wash-down  "  closet. 

The  various  parts  are  lettered  on  Ills.  112  and  113 
as  follows  : — 

A.  Earthenware  pan  with  flushing  rim. 

B.  Valve-box  of  enamelled  white  iron. 

C.  Anti-D-trap. 

D.  Overflow  from  basin. 

E.  Connection  of  overflow  pipe  (D)  wdth  ventilating 

arm  (J)  of  valve-box. 

F.  Copper  bellows  for  regulating  the  quantity  of 

water-flush  after  the  handle  is  dropped. 

G.  Flap-valve  to  keep  water  in  the  basin. 

H.  Brass  supply  valve  admitting  water  to  flushing 

rim. 

J.  2-in.  vent  pipe  to  the  valve-box,  carried  to  the 
outer  air,  and  preventing  siphonage. 

K.  The  lever  for  opening  and  closing  the  basin 
valve. 

L.  Weight  for  shutting  the  supply  valve. 

A  good  valve  closet  will,  with  very  little  attention, 
work  satisfactorily,  but  in  most  cases  it  is  perhaps 
advisable  to  install  a  wash-down  closet. 

The  Siphonic  closet  has  found 
favour  in  recent  years,  and  111. 
114  shows  Messrs.  Shank's 
Siphonic  closet,  in  which  the 
emptying  of  the  basin  is  pro- 
duced by  the  direct  action  of  the 
water  from  the  flush  pipe,  the 
contents  being  completely  dis- 
charged by  the  powerful  suction, 
the  basin  being  again  tilled  up 
with  clean  water.  The  pan  has 
a  deep  water-seal  of  8  in.,  a 


WOODEN  5LAT 

J 


III.  114. 

Shank's  Siphonic  Closet, 


SANITARY 


FITTINGS  145 
and  it  is  said  to 


water  surface  of  i^,^  in.  by  11  in. 
require  only  a  two-gallon  flush. 

Messrs.  Shank's  Combination  closet 
(111.   115)  is  siphonic  in  action,  being  ^LuaiitiG 
started  by  a  hand  lever  instead  of  a  ' 
chain,  and  the  flushing  cistern  is  silent 
in  its  action,  as  it  is  constructed  upon 
the  float-valve  principle. 

Urinals — Urinals  are  not  necessary  in 
a  private  house,  for  a  wash-down  closet  III.  115.  Shank's 
with  a  hino^ed  seat  answers  their  pur-     Silent  Com- 

1^  .  \        BINATION  Closet. 

pose  and  thus  obviates  an  extra  fitting. 

They  are  of  various  shapes,  such  as  111.  116,  and  are 

trapped  like  other  sanitary  fittings,  the  waste  pipe 


III.  116.    Urinal  Basin. 


III.  117.    Range  of  Urinals. 


being  ventilated  in  a  similar  way  to  a  soil  pipe. 
White  glazed  urinals  with  semicircular  backs,  as 
shown  in  111.  1 17,  are  largely  used  and  are  made  with- 
out angles,  projections  or  corners  where  dirt  can 
accumulate.  They  should  be  flushed  automatically 
by  means  of  a  cistern  fixed  over  them. 

Flushing  Cisterns — Flushing    Cisterns    (or  water 


146  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


waste  preventers)  are  used  to  all  ordinary  wash-down 
closets  and  urinals.  The  water  companies  usually 
limit  their  capacity  to  two  gallons,  but  wherever 
possible  three  gallons  should  be  provided.    The  best 

variety  is  that  which  works  on 
the  siphonic  principle,  so  that,  on 
the  chain  being  pulled,  the  con- 
tents of  the  cistern  are  at  once 
discharged.  In  the  ordinary  valve 
cistern  (111.  ii8)  the  chain  must 
be  held  until  all  the  contents  of 


III.  ii8. 

Flushing  Cistern, 
Old  Type. 


the  cistern  are  discharged. 


III.  119. 

Flushing  Cistern, 
Modern  Type. 


111.  119  shows  a  Levern 
flushing  cistern,  in  which,  when 
the  dome  is  raised,  the  water  is 
drawn  up  above  the  level  of  the 
head  of  the  flush  pipe,  and  starts 
the  siphonage,  after  which  the 
ball-valve  allows  the  cistern  to  be 
refilled  to  a  point  just  below  the 
top  of  the  flush  pipe. 

Soil  Pipes — Soil  pipes  should  be  made  of  strong 
hydraulic  drawn  lead,  weighing  eight  pounds  to  the 
square  foot,  and  should  be  fixed  on  the 
external  face  of  walls  with  as  few  bends  as 
^^^^  possible.  111.  1 20  shows  the  wiped  soldered 
joint  used  to  join  lead  pipes,  in  which  a 
socket  is  formed  on  the  upper  end  of  the 
lower  of  the  two  pipes  to  be  joined,  by 
means  of  the  turning  pin,  and  the  spigot 
on  the  lower  end  of  the  upper  pipe 
is  rasped  off  to  a  feather  edge  so  as 
to  fit  into  this  socket.  The  pipes  are  then  covered 
for  a  distance  of  four  to  nine  inches  with  a  mixture 


III.  120. 

Wiped 
Soldered 
Joint. 


SANITARY  FITTINGS 


147 


III.  121. 

Astragal  AND 
Lead  Tack. 


of  size,  lampblack  and  powdered  chalk,  called  soil 
or  smudge,  which  is  then  scraped  off  the  ends 
of  the  pipes  to  be  occupied  by  the  solder.  Molten 
solder  is  then  poured  around  the  joint 
and  wiped  into  shape  by  means  of  a 
greased  cloth,  the  soil  preventing  the 
solder  adhering  beyond  the  point  de- 
sired. 

Soil  pipes  are  secured  to  the  walls 
by  tacks  (111.  121)  of  eight-pound  lead, 
placed  from  three  to  five  feet  apart,  centre 
to  centre,  and  usually  about  ten  inches  deep. 
These  tacks  may  be  made  in  pairs  or 

sinorly,  and  are  merely  soldered  to 

LEAD  TACK     i        ,        ,         r     i  -i       •  i 

y     the  back  01  the  sou  pipe  and  se- 
cured  to  the  wall  by  hooks,  as 

III  122 

Section  OF  Soil  Pipe   shown  in   111.    122.      The   tacks  in 

and  Lead  Tack.  the  better  class  of  work  are  more 
ornamental,  and  have  astragal  mouldings,  as  shown. 

The  soil  pipe  should  be  carried  well  above  all 
windows  for  the  purpose  of  ventilation,  and  to 
prevent  smells  entering  the  rooms,  as  described  in 
chapter  x.,  page  155.  It  may  be  taken  up  between  the 
rafters,  being  enclosed  in  a  casing  to  prevent  it  being 
damaged,  but  this  is  objected  to  by  some  local 
authorities  who  require  it  to  be  carried  up  on  the 
external  surface  of  the  roof,  where  it  often  forms  an 
objectionable  disfigurement  to  the  exterior. 

The  Joints  between  Lead  and  Earthenware  at  the  junction  of 

the  closet  with  the  soil  pipe  and  at  the  base  of  the 
soil  pipe  with  the  drain  must  be  made  with  great  care 
in  order  to  render  them  perfectly  water-tight.  A  brass 
ferrule  joint  shown  in  111.  123  should  therefore  be 
used,  in  which  a  socket  is  formed  on  the  lead  pipe 


148  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


LEAP 


EAItTHEnWAee 


III.  123. 

Brass  Ferrule  Joint. 


by  means  of  a  plumber's  turning  pin,  and  the  end 
of  a  brass  collar  or  ferrule  fits  into  this,  and  a  wiped 
joint  is  then  made  between  the 
lead  and  brass,  as  described  above. 
The  brass  ferrule  is  then  jointed 
CEEeeuLE  earthenware  by  means  of 

a  ring  of  gaskin  (hemp),  neat 
cement  being  run  in,  and  thus 
making  a  waterproof  and  air-tight 
joint. 

The  old  method  of  forming  a 
red-lead  joint  between  the  earthen- 
ware and  lead  pipes  is  bad,  owing  to  the  contraction 
and  expansion  of  the  latter  material,  which  allows 
of  direct  communication  between  the  drainage  system 
and  the  house. 

The  Metallo-Keramic  joint,  which  is  an  invention  of 
Messrs.  Doulton,  is  another  method  in  which  a  short 
piece  of  lead  pipe  is  fused  by  a  patent  process  on 
to  the  earthenware  pipe  of  the  closet ;  this  can  then 
be  connected  with  the  soil  pipe  by  means  of  an 
ordinary  wiped  joint. 

Iron  soil  pipes,  when  used,  should  be  of  special 
thickness  and  have  caulked  lead  joints,  as  shown  in 
111.  76,  and  they  should  be  galvanized  or  treated  with 
the  Bower- Barff  or  Angus  Smith  solution  to  prevent 
them  from  rusting,  as  described  in  chapter  viii., 
page  1 2  7. 

The  Comparative  Advantages  of  Iron  and  Lead  for  Soil  Pipes 

have  been  frequently  discussed,  and  opinion  is  still 
divided  as  to  their  relative  merits. 

The  London  County  Council  require  all  soil  pipes 
where  fixed  within  buildings  to  be  constructed  of 
lead,  whereas  in  the  United  States  lead  soil  pipes 


SANITARY  FITTINGS  149 


are  prohibited,  as  iron  is  considered  the  better 
material. 

Lead  soil  pipes  are  smoother,  easily  bossed  to  any 
shape,  do  not  require  painting  and  give  a  little  in 
case  of  settlements ;  but  in  order  to  protect  them 
from  damage  they  should  be  covered  with  sheet  iron 
up  to  about  six  feet  from  the  ground.  Lead  soil 
pipes  may  be,  in  our  opinion,  dangerous  when  used 
inside  a  building,  as  instances  have  occurred  in  which 
they  have  been  damaged  by  nails  driven  through 
floor  boards  and  casinors,  and  so  have  admitted  foul 
air  into  the  house. 

Where  soil  and  drain  ventilation  pipes  have  to  be 
fixed  on  internal  walls,  recesses  may  be  formed  to 
receive  them,  and  where  they  have  to  be  fixed  under 
fioors  and  over  ornamental  ceilings  special  precautions 
should  be  taken  by  laying  them  in  lead-lined  troughs 
provided  with  a  lead  warning  pipe  carried  to  the 
external  air. 

Baths — Baths  are  made  of  various  materials,  such 
as  enamelled  iron,  copper  or  porcelain,  but  the 
wooden  enclosures  formerly  considered  necessary 
should  now  be  discarded  (see  chap,  xvi.,  p.  226). 

111.  124  shows  a  porcelain  enamelled  bath,  standing 


III.  124.    Enamelled  Iron  Bath  without  Casing. 


ISO  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


on 


four  legs,  without  any  casing. 


lir-'m.   lead  waste,  h; 


It  is  fitted  with 
i^-in.  anti-D-trap  dis- 
charging into  a  2-in.  main  waste,  which  is  carried 
up  above  the  highest  fitting  as  a  ventilating  pipe. 
The  trap  is  also  ventilated,  to  obviate  siphonage, 
by  means  of  a  2-in.  anti-siphonage  pipe,  which  is 
carried  up  and  connected  to  the  waste  pipe  above 
the  highest  fitting  where  such  are  arranged  over  one 
another. 

The  bath  waste  is  of  the  standing  overflow  type, 
in  which  the  waste  is  formed  of  a  2-in.  pipe  which 
acts  as  an  overflow  on  the  water  reaching  to  the  top. 

  111.    125  shows  the  Ajax 

patent  shutter  and  overflow 
designed  by  Dr.  C.  A.  James, 
which  can  be  used  either  with 
a  bath  or  lavatory  basin,  and 
consists  of  a  metal  weir  which 
fits  into  a  slot  and  is  easily 
removed  for  cleaning.  It  is 
simple  and  completely  visible, 
so  that  there  can  be  no  foul 
collection  of  soapsuds  or  dirt. 
The  by-laws  of  some  water  companies  require  the 
supply  pipe  to  be  brought  into  the  bath  above  the 
water-line,  but  as  this  causes  the  room  to  be  filled 
with  steam  it  is  better  that  the  hot  water  should  be 
brought  in  at  the  bottom  of  the  bath  if  possible.  The 
bath,  so  that  it  may  be  quickly  filled,  should  have 
supply  pipes  of  not  less  than  i  in.  diameter,  but 
of  course  the  size  of  pipe  varies  in  different  circum- 
stances. 

The  bath  waste  pipe  is  sometimes  delivered  into  a 
rain-water  head,  but  if  this  happens  to  be  near  a 


III.  125. 

Ajax  Bath  Overflow. 


SANITARY  FITTINGS 


151 


window  the  effluvium  from  the  dirty  water  and  soap- 
suds is  offensive,  and  in  confined  situations,  such  as 
areas,  it  is  better  to  have  a  waste  pipe  carried  up  and 
ventilated  as  shown  in  111.  124. 

When  the  floor  is  of  wood  a  4-lb.  lead  safe,  as 
shown  in  111.  124,  may  be  placed  under  the  bath,  and 
sloped  so  as  to  throw  the  water  towards  a  2-in. 
overflow  leading  direct  to  the  open  air. 

Lavatories— Lavatories  are  usually  made  of  glazed 
earthenware  and  are  of  various  patterns.  The  tip- 
up  variety  has  the  advantage  of  emptying  the  basin 
quickly,  but  the  receiver  in  which  the  dirty  water  is 
thrown  must  be  cleaned  periodically,  as  the  smell  arising 
from  decomposing  soapsuds  is  most  unpleasant. 

The  waste  pipe  from  a  single  lavatory  should  be  at 
least  in.  diameter,  and  should  be  treated  in  the  same 
manner  as  with  baths,  but  if  the  lavatory  is  on  the 
ground  floor,  it  can  discharge  direct  into  a  gully  trap. 

An  overflow  pipe  is  a  cause  of  annoyance  in  con- 
sequence of  the  difficulty 
of  keeping  it  clean,  and 
this  is  avoided  by  using 
some  fittine  such  as  that 


ANTI- 


described  for  baths  on        aYPHONAGE  waste- 
to 

page  150.  PRAiiNi 

III.  126, 


Range  of  Lavatory  Basins. 


Lavatory  basins,  when 
fitted  in  ranores,  must 
each  have  a  trap  which  should  be  ventilated  to  prevent 
siphonage,  as  shown  in  111.  126. 

Sinks — Sinks  for  various  purposes  are  in  general 
use,  viz.  :  (^a)  Scullery  Sinks;  (d)  Housemaid's  Sinks  ; 
and  (c)  Butler's  Sinks. 

(a)  Scullery  Sinks  should  be  made  of  glazed  stone- 
ware so  as  to  be  easily  cleaned,  and  may  be  supported 


152  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


on 


galvanized 


iron  cantilevers  or  on  stoneware 
pedestals,  as  shown  in  111.  127.  They  are  generally 
about  3  ft.  by  2  ft.,  the  height  of  the  top  edge  being 
about  2  ft.  6  in.  from  the  floor.    The  bottom  of  the 


III.  127.    Scullery  Sink. 

sink  should  have  a  good  fall  towards  the  outlet, 
which  should  be  placed  adjacent  to  the  outer  wall, 
and  should  be  provided  with  3^  in.  bell-mouthed 
cobweb  grating  to  arrest  the  solid  matter.  The 
waste  should  have  an  internal  diameter  of  at  least  2  in., 
and  should  have  an  anti-D-trap  fitted  with  inspection 
screw  for  use  in  case  of  stoppage.  It  should  discharge 
on  to  an  open  channel  connected  with  a  trapped  gully 
or  on  a  grease  trap,  so  as  to  be  disconnected  from  the 
drains,  as  mentioned  in  chapter  viii.,  page  135. 

(d)  Housemaid's  Sinks  are  Sometimes  provided,  but  the 

slops  from  the  bedrooms 
can  be  emptied  down  the 
water-closet  in  an  ordinary 
house,  as  sanitary  fittings 
should  not  be  multiplied 
more  than  absolutely  ne- 
cessary. The  closet  basin 
should  have  a  lift-up  seat, 

III.  128.    Housemaid's  Sink.       or   '*slop  top."      We  give 

111.  128  to  show  a  Doulton's  combined  wash-up  and 


Housemaid's  Sink. 


SANITARY  FITTINGS  153 


slop  sink,  with  an  earthenware  basin  and  trap  to  which 
a  flushing  tank  is  frequently  provided.  The  wash-up 
sink  has  a  hardwood  grating  to  prevent  crockery  being 
broken  against  the  earthenware  bottom. 

(c)  Butler's  Sinks  should  be  fitted  with  a  hot  and 
cold  water  supply,  and  be  about  15  in.  deep  in 
order  that  bottles  and  decanters  may  be  held  under- 
neath the  taps.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  lined  with  lead, 
which  should  not  be  of  less  than  eight  pounds  to  the 
foot,  and  if  they  are  to  have  much  hard  wear  the 
bottom  must  be  of  ten-pound  lead.  These  sinks  can 
also  be  obtained  of  glazed  earthenware,  but  with  this 
material  breakages  are  more  frequent  than  if  of  wood 
lined  with  lead.  They  can  also  be  lined  with  sheet 
iron,  tin,  copper,  or  with  best  white  metal,  which 
always  retains  its  colour.  Some  people  consider  that 
these  are  superior  to  lead,  as  they  withstand  the  action 
of  hot  water,  and  are  not  liable  to 
be  damaged  by  the  effects  of  expan- 
sion and  contraction. 

Expansion  Joints — Where  a  lead 
waste  pipe  has  a  large  amount 
of  hot  water  continually  passing 
through  it,  a  "telescope"  joint, 
as  shown  in  111.  129,  which  allows 
for  expansion  and  contraction  of 
the  pipe,  is  sometimes  used.  It 
has  a  rubber  rine  round  the  inside 
of  the  upper  pipe,  which  can  thus 
move  up  and  down  in  the  socket  of  the  lower  one. 


III.  129. 
Telescope  Joint. 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  VENTILATION,  TRAPPING,  AND 
SIPHONAGE  OF  DRAINS 

General  Principles— (Outlet  pipes— Inlet  pipes — Materials  for  pipes — 
Another  theory  of  ventilation)  —  Traps  (Bell,  D,  S,  P,  Anti-D)  — 
Siphonage. 

GENERAL  Principles — A  drainage  system  re- 
quires to  be  properly  ventilated  in  order  to 
prevent  stagnation  of  foul  air,  and  siphonage 
of  traps  which  would  result  in  the  admission  of  sewer 
gas  into  the  house.  By  means  of  ventilating  pipes 
the  accumulation  of  foul  gases  is  prevented,  for  they 
are  immediately  led  away  to  the  open  air  at  some 
point  where  they  cannot  be  drawn  into  the  house 
through  windows  or  other  openings.  In  order  to 
produce  this  current  of  fresh  air  throughout  the  whole 
system,  it  should  be  remembered  that  air,  when 
heated,  expands  and  rises  ;  and  that  air  in  motion  is 
lighter  and  more  rarefied  than  when  at  rest. 

All  drains  should  be  laid  to  a  fall  as  described  in 
chapter  viii.,  and  the  vitiated  air  therein,  owing  to 
chemical  decomposition,  is  warmer  than  the  atmosphere, 
and  hence  its  specific  gravity  is  less.  It  has  therefore 
a  tendency  to  rise  to  the  higher  end  of  the  drain.  If 
there  is  an  outlet  at  the  higher  end,  and  an  inlet  for 
fresh  air  is  provided  at  the  lower  end  of  the  system, 
a  current  is  produced  which  in  ordinary  circumstances 
will  be  effective  in  ventilating  the  drain. 

154 


VENTILATION  OF  DRAINS 


155 


If  a  ventilating  pipe  is  carried  up  well  above  any 
structure  a  self-acting  exhaust  shaft  is  obtained,  be- 
cause the  air  at  the  top  end  of  the  pipe  is  less  dense 
than  that  at  the  lower  end,  and  an  upward  draught  is 
thus  automatically  produced.  For  the  above  reasons 
a  short  fresh  -  air  inlet  pipe  is  fixed  at  the  lower 
extremity  of  a  drain,  and  a  long  outlet  pipe  is  fixed 
at  the  highest  point ;  one  of  the  latter  is  also  fixed 
at  the  head  of  each  branch  carrying  the  drainage 
from  a  water-closet. 

Outlet  pipes  should  be  of  the  same  diameter  as 
the  soil  pipes  to  which  they  are  attached,  and  may 
have  either  an  open  end,  fitted  with  a  galvanized  wire 
cage,  to  keep  out  dead  leaves  and  to  prevent  birds 
building  therein,  or  be  provided  with  an  up-draught 
cowl  which  is  said  to  increase  the  upward  current  of 
air. 

Inlet  pipes  have  openings  usually  six  feet  from  the 
ground,  and  should  be  kept  as  far  as  possible  from 
any  door  or  window  openings.  They  are  sometimes 
fitted  with  a  mica  flap-valve  so  arranged  as  only  to 
allow  air  to  enter,  while  any  back  current  from  the 
drains  causes  the  valve  to  shut.  The  inlet  pipe  is 
taken  into  the  manhole  which  is  nearest  the  sewer,  so 
that  fresh  air  is  admitted  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
drainage  system  and  finds  its  way  through  the  pipes 
to  the  various  outlets.  In  order  to  be  effective,  inlet 
pipes  should  have  a  sectional  area  approximating  to 
the  sum  of  the  various  outlets  of  the  main  branch 
drains. 

Materials  for  Pipes — Inlet  and  Outlet  pipes  should  be 
made  of  some  material  which  will  not  rust  or  decay, 
otherwise  they  are  liable  to  become  choked.  Lead  is 
considered  by  many  to  be  the  best  material,  as  with 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


iron,  even  when  galvanized,  rust  will  sometimes  form 
and  collect  in  the  bottom  of  the  pipe,  thus  blocking 
it  up.  We  found  this  state  of  affairs  in  the  drainage 
system  of  a  hospital  which  recently  came  under  our 
notice.  We  took  more  than  half  a  pailful  of  oxide 
of  iron  from  the  bottom  of  the  outlet  pipe,  which  had 
thus  completely  stopped  the  circulation  of  the  air  in 
the  system. 

The  method  of  ventilation  mentioned  is  the  one  in 
general  use,  yet  it  will  be  understood  that  when  the 
contents  of  a  water-closet  are  suddenly  discharged 
down  a  soil-pipe,  there  is  a  downward  current  of  air 
which  reverses  this  arrangement  for  ventilation,  as  it 
tends  to  force  the  foul  air  in  the  pipes  in  the  direction 
of  the  flow. 

It  is  therefore  held  by  some  authorities  that  both 
inlet  and  outlet  ventilating  pipes  should  be  carried 
above  the  roof  level,  so  that  they  may  act  intermittently 
either  as  inlets  or  outlets. 

Traps — Traps  are  required  in  the  drainage  system 
to  prevent  foul  air  entering  the  house,  and  the  princi- 
ples upon  which  they  should  be  designed  may  be 
briefly  outlined. 

A  trap  in  its  simplest  state  is 
merely  a  bend  in  a  pipe  which  re- 
tains water  and  thus  prevents  air 
from  passing  beyond  it.  Under- 
ground earthenware  traps  have  been 
already  dealt  with  in  chapter  viii. 


An  strap  is  sho 


wn  m 


111. 


130, 


S-Trap. 


the  space  between  C  and  D  being 
the  water-seal,  which  should  never  be 
less  than  in.  in  depth.  A  water-seal  alone,  how- 
ever, is  not  sufficient  to  prevent  the  passage  of  gases. 


VENTILATION  OF  DRAINS 


157 


because  it  is  known  that  water  absorbs  such  gases 
and  passes  them  through  to  the  other  side  of  the 
trap.  It  may  also  be  rendered  ineffective  by  means 
of  evaporation.  For  the  above  reasons  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  water  should  be  changed  frequently, 
and  also  that  the  trap  itself  should  be  ventilated  on 
the  side  nearest  to  the  drain,  so  that  noxious  gases 
may  escape  by  the  ventilating  pipe  and  not  saturate  the 
water  in  the  trap.  The  ventilating  pipe  is  also  required 
to  prevent  siphonage,  which  is  dealt  with  on  page  158. 

Traps  used  with  the  sanitary  fittings  of  a  house 
should  be  designed  with  as  few  angles  as  possible,  so 
as  to  render  them  self-cleansing-. 

The  Bell-trap  is  a  bad  type  which  does  not  fulfil 
these  conditions,  as  has  been  pointed  out  in  chap- 
ter VIII.,  page  133. 

The  D-trap,  shown  in  111. 
131,  as  still  occasionally  found 
in  old  houses,  has  a  dip 
pipe,  which  is  projected  about 
in.  into  the  water  of  the 
trap,  as  shown,  and  if,  as  is 
usual,  it  becomes  eaten  away 
the  ''trap"  itself  is  entirely 
destroyed.  It  has,  moreover, 
many  corners  for  the  collection  of  filth,  as  can  be  seen 
on  examining  one  on  its  removal. 

The  s-trap  shown  in  111.  130  is  made  of  i|-  in.  to 
4  in.  internal  diameter  of  drawn  lead,  generally  8  lb. 
to  the  superficial  foot.  It  is  used  with  a  vertical  waste 
pipe.  The  smaller  kinds  should  be  fitted  with  screw 
inspection  caps  at  the  bottom,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion, so  as  to  be  easily  cleared  out  if  they  become 
stopped. 


M 

m 

P] 

III.  131.  D-Trap. 


158  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


III.  132.  P-Trap. 


The  p-trap  shown  in  111.  132 
is  constructed  in  a  similar  way 
to  the  S-trap,  and  used  where 
the  waste  pipe  is  horizontal  for  a 
certain  length. 

These  "S"  and  "P"  traps, 
largely  used  for  the  wastes  of 
W.C.'s,  baths,  sinks  and  lava- 
tories, are  usually  circular  in 
section. 

The  anti-D-trap,  shown  in  111.  133,  was  invented  by 
Mr.  Hellyer  to  check  siphonage,  i.e.  the  drawing  out 

of  the  water  in  the  trap  by 
the  momentum  of  the  dis- 
charge. He  found  that  siphon- 
age  could  be  checked  by  con- 
tracting the  water  -  holding 
portion  of  the  trap  and  making 
the  outgo  larger  and  square 
in  section,  thus  producing  more 
friction  during  the  discharge. 
Another  advantage  claimed 
for  this  trap  is  that  the  water  in  rushing  through  it 
has  a  tendency  to  hit  the  upper  edge  of  the  outlet  at 
A  (111.  133)  and  to  fall  back  into  the  trap  instead  of 
being  drawn  down  the  waste  pipe. 

Siphonage — Siphonage,  which  causes  the  unsealing 
of  traps,  may  occur  in  two  ways,  which  will  be  best 
explained  by  reference  to  111.  134,  which  shows  an 
ordinary  S-trap  filled  with  water.  If  a  discharge 
of  water  is  sent  through  the  trap  which  is  sufficient  to 
fill  the  sectional  area  of  the  pipe,  the  trap  would  either 
remain  empty  or  a  partial  vacuum  would  be  formed 
at  its  outgo  C,  and  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 


III.  133.  Anti-D-Trap. 


VENTILATION  OF  DRAINS 


159 


at  D  being  greater  than  at  C  would  cause  part 
or  the  whole  of  the  water  to  be  forced  out  of  the 
trap  ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  trap  would  be  siphoned." 
This  siphonage  would  render  the  trap  useless  for 
preventing  the  inlet  of  foul  air,  and  it  may  be  obviated 
by  fixing  an  anti-siphonage  pipe,  as  shown  at  E, 
which  causes  air  to  be  drawn  into  the  drain  on  the 
outlet  side  of  the  trap,  and  also  ventilates  the  space 
between  the  trap  and  down-pipe. 

The  water-seal  of  the  trap  may  be,  however, 
interfered  with  in  another  way,  as  when  two  closets 
are  placed  one  above  the 
other  and  discharge  into 
the  same  down-pipe.  If 
we  assume,  again,  that 
there  is  no  anti-siphonage 
pipe  E,  the  air  following 
the  discharge  from  the 
upper  fitting  down  the  pipe 

A  B  on  111.  134,  will  draw      ^^l.  134.    Siphonage  Diagram. 

the  air  in  the  portion  B  C  along  with  it,  thus  lessening 
the  pressure  on  the  water  in  the  trap  at  C,  which 
causes  it  to  become  unsealed  by  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  at  D.  These  points  are  easily  demon- 
strated by  means  of  small  glass  traps  connected  to 
glass  down-pipes  by  means  of  india-rubber  rings. 

These  causes  of  unsealing,  or  siphonage,  may  be 
prevented  by  an  anti-siphonage  pipe  E,  which,  in 
order  to  be  effective,  should  be  of  the  same  diameter 
as  C,  and  should  be  carried  up  higher  than  any  of  the 
fittings  above  and  connected  to  the  main  pipe  A  B, 
which  in  turn  must  be  carried  above  the  roof  level. 


CHAPTER  XI 


TYPICAL  DRAINAGE  PLANS 

Terraced  Houses  drained  towards  the  Front  Street — Terraced  Houses 
drained  towards  the  Back— Semi-detached  Houses— A  Small  Country 
House — A  Large  Country  House—A  Town  House— A  Small  Stable. 

THE  reader's  special  attention  is  drawn  to  chap- 
ter vni.,  which  deals  with  house  drainage  and 
describes  the  method  of  laying  drain  pipes. 
The  disconnection  of  rain-water  pipes  and  bath  and 
lavatory  wastes  is  discussed  in  chapter  vni.,  page  132. 
The  ventilation  of  the  drainage  systems  is  described 
in  chapter  x. 

In  addition  to  this,  drainage  systems  are  sometimes 
cleansed  periodically  by  means  of  an  automatic  flushing 
tank  fixed  near  the  highest  point  of  the  system.  If 
this  is  not  provided  the  bath  and  lavatory  wastes 
should  be  arranged  so  as  to  fulfil  this  purpose. 


A  selection  of  typical  drainage  plans  for  different 
houses  is  now  given,  which  are  lettered  as  follows  : — 

B.W.  =  Bath  Wastes.  R.W.P.  =  Rain-water  Pipe. 

G.  =  Gully  for  rain-water  G.T.  =  Grease  Trap. 

pipes,  etc.  F.A.I.  =  Fresh-air  Inlet. 

I.e.  =  Inspection  Chamber.  S.  =  Sink. 

S.P.  =  Soil  Pipe.  W,C.  =  Water-closet 

160 


TYPICAL  DRAINAGE  PLANS  i6i 


Terraced  Houses  drained  towards  the  Front  Street  —  111.  135 

shows  a  drainage  plan  of  terraced  houses  drained 
towards  the  front  street.  The  drainage  in  this  case 
empties  itself  into  a  sewer  in  the  centre  of  the  road 
which  receives  the  sewage  from  houses  on  both  sides 
of  the  street.     It  has  already  been  pointed  out  in 


III.  135.    Terraced  Houses  drained  towards  the  Front. 

chapter  viii.,  that  it  is  not  advisable  to  lay  drains 
beneath  the  house  owing  to  difficulty  of  access,  and 
the  harm  that  might  be  caused  by  any  leakage,  but  in 
these  cases  there  is  no  alternative.  The  precaution 
must  therefore  be  taken  of  surrounding  the  pipes 
under  the  house  with  concrete,  so  as  to  give  additional 
security  against  the  entry  of  sewer  gas  into  the  house. 
Iron  pipes  are  sometimes  used,  as  referred  to  in  chap- 
ter VIII.,  page  126. 

Terraced  Houses  drained  towards  the  Back — 111.  1 36  shows  a 
plan  of  terraced  houses  drained  towards  the  back. 
This  arrangement  does  away  with  the  objectionable 
practice  of  carrying  drain  pipes  underneath  the  house, 


i62  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


and  the  consequent  trouble  and  expense  in  case  of 
stoppage,  as  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  break  up 
the  floor  in  order  to  make  good  any  defects.  By 
referring  to  this  diagram,  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
soil  and  waste  pipes  are  taken  into  an  inspection 
chamber  (I.C.)  at  the  back  of  each  house,  and  from 


RWPRAIN 


III.  136.    Terraced  Houses  drained  towards  the  Back. 

thence  the  pipes  have  a  straight  fall  to  the  sewer, 
at  the  junction  of  which  a  further  inspection  chamber 
might  be  placed.  In  case  of  a  stoppage,  a  man 
would  find  no  difficulty  whatever  in  reaching  any  part 
of  the  drainage  system  with  drain  rods,  thereby  easily 
and  quickly  removing  the  obstruction. 

The  rain-water  in  this  case  is  collected  and  removed 
to  a  storage  tank — as  required  by  many  district 
councils — by  a  separate  system  of  drains,  as  shown. 

Semi-detached  Houses— 111.  1 37  shows  a  drainage  plan  of 
semi-detached  houses,  from  which  it  will  be  seen  that 
each  house  is  provided  with  three  inspection  chambers, 
which  receive  the  branch  drains.  The  planning  follows 
out  the  principles  already  laid  down  in  chapter  viii., 


TYPICAL  DRAINAGE  PLANS  163 


page  125,  that  the  drains  be  laid  in  straight  Hnes  with 
easy  bends,  so  as  to  assist  the  flow  of  the  sewage  in 


III.  137.    Semi-detached  Houses. 


the  required  direction,  and  that  care  be  taken  that  no 
sharp  angles  occur  which  may  in  any  way  impede  the 
flow. 

A  Small  Country  House— 111.  1 38  depicts  a  drainage  system 
of  a  small  country  house  in  which  a  right-angle  bend 


III.  138.    A  Detached  House. 

in  the  drain  is  necessary,  a  manhole  being  constructed 
at  this  point. 


164 


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The  plan  emphasizes  the  necessity  for  placing  the 
sanitary  arrangements  as  near  each  other  as  possible, 
and  although  this  is  often  difficult  to  arrange,  it  is 
a  principle  that  should  be  aimed  at. 

A  Larg-e  Country  House— III    1 86    shows    the  drainage 

scheme  of  a  large  country  house,  which  isgiven  ingreater 
detail  in  Architectural  Hygiene  (3rd  edition),  page  252, 
but  which  sufficiently  explains  itself.  The  rain-water 
is  stored  in  a  tank  connected  to  a  pump,  and  can  be 
utilized  for  domestic  purposes.  The 
nusMiNG  waste  water  from  the  baths  is  col- 
lected  into  two  automatic  flushing 
tanks,  one  being  by  the  servants' 
hall  at  the  upper  end  of  the  system, 
and  these  discharge  their  contents 
at  regular  intervals  into  the  drains  in 


order  to  cleanse  them, 
of  this  house  was  treated  by  the 
Scott-Moncrieff  system,  as  men- 
tioned in  chapter  xii.,  page  170. 

A  Town  House — 111.    1 39  shows  the 

drainage  of  a  town  house,  in  which 
it  is  generally  necessary  to  carry  the 
drains  for  some  distance  under  the 
building,  and  in  this  case  4-in.  iron 
pipes  were  used  and  treated  with 
Anorus  Smith's  solution,  as  described 
in  chapter  viii.  The  drainage  is  all 
carried  into  manholes,  from  which 
access  can  be  obtained  to  the  whole 
system. 

A  Small  Stable— 111.  1 40  shows  the  drainage  for  a  small 
stable.  The  principles  governing  such  a  scheme  are  set 
out  in  chapter  xx.,  page  369.  The  stable  floor  has  a  fall 


The  sewage 


III.  139. 

A  Town  House. 


TYPICAL  DRAINAGE  PLANS  165 


towards  an  open  channel  six  inches  in  diameter,  which 
is  carried  the  whole  length  of  the  stable,  the  channel 
itself  having  a  fall  towards 
the  stable  gullies  (111.  103), 
which  are  placed  outside  the 
building  at  the  end  of  the 
channel  pipes,  and  are  pro- 
vided with  a  grid  so  as  to 
intercept  straw  and  other 
refuse  that  would  block  the 
drain. 

The  central  w^ashing  place 
for  carriages  has  a  floor  inclined  towards  a  gully  in 
the  centre.  The  waste  water  from  the  yard  and  the 
stable  drainage  are  brought  by  the  various  branch 
pipes  into  inspection  chambers  and  conveyed  from 
thence  to  the  sewer. 


III.  140.    A  Small  Stable. 


CHAPTER  XII 


THE   COLLECTION   AND   DISPOSAL  OF 
SEWAGE  AND  REFUSE 

The  Collection  of  Sewage  (The  Conservancy  System  ;  the  Water- 
carried  System)— The  Disposal  of  Sewage  (Cesspools  ;  Irrigation  ; 
Discharge  into  the  Sea  ;  Discharge  into  Rivers)— The  Treatment  of 
Sewage  (Scott-Moncrieff  System  ;  Dibdin's  or  Sutton  System  ;  Septic 
Tank  System;  Colonel  Ducat's  System;  Oxygen  Sewage  Purification)— 
The  Collection  and  Disposal  of  Refuse  ;  Refuse  Destructors. 

THE  Collection  of  Sewage:  The  Conservancy  System — 
The  conservancy  system  consists  in  the  use  of 
earth-closets,  the  earliest  form  of  which  was  a 
seat  placed  over  the  midden  or  shallow  pit  lined  with 
rough  brick  or  stone,  but  this  form  is  very  insanitary 
and  is  not  now  much  in  use.  In  modern  forms  the 
receptacles  for  the  excreta  are  either  fixed  or  movable. 

Fixed  receptacles  should  be  easy  of  access  and  care 
should  be  taken  that  they  are  perfectly  water-tight  and 
have  a  smooth  impervious  surface 
with  no  angles  for  the  collection 
of  excreta. 

Movable  receptacles  consist  of 
galvanized  iron  pails,  which  should 
be  emptied  early  every  morning 
and    properly    cleaned    out  and 

III.  141.    Pail  Closet,    disinfected.       111.     I41     shows  a 

good  form  of  earth-closet  with  movable  receptacle, 
or  pail,  behind  which  is  the  small  door,  outside  the 
building,  through  which  it  is  removed. 

166 


SEWAGE  AND  REFUSE  167 


MOVABLE  5CAT 
ACTUATING  PER 


III.  142. 

Moule's  Earth-closet. 


111.  142  shows  Moule's  closet  in  which,  by  means  of 
a  lever  operated  by  the  seat,  dry  earth  is  shot  into 
the  receptacle  every  time  the  closet  is  used. 

In  closets  of  this  kind  dry  earth  may  be  used  as 
a  deodorant,  and  if  of  a  loamy 
nature  it  has  the  effect  of 
turning  the  excreta  into  a 
kind  of  vegetable  mould.  In 
cases  where  there  is  a  saw- 
mill in  the  neighbourhood, 
sawdust  may  be  used,  as  it  is 
found  to  be  quite  as  good  a 
deodorant  as  dry  earth. 

There  is  no  doubt  that 
where  country  houses  are 
remote  from  sewers,  and  there 
are  no  means  of  treating  sewage,  earth-closets  may 
often  be  advantageously  used,  but  the  process  of  re- 
moving pails  from  the  upper  floors  is  an  objectionable 
feature. 

The  Water-carried  System — The  water- Carried  system 
consists  in  removing  the  sewage  through  drain  pipes, 
the  details  of  which  have  been  dealt  with  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapters. 

The  Disposal  of  Sewage — This  is  a  matter  of  vital 
interest,  and  of  recent  years  much  thought  has  been 
given  to  it. 

Cesspools — Cesspools  are  sometimes  made  for  the 
collection  of  sewage  in  country  districts  where  there 
is  no  main  sewer,  and  these  are  sometimes  constructed 
of  porous  materials  so  that  the  liquids  soak  away, 
leaving  behind  the  solid  matter,  which  is  cleared  out 
at  lono-  intervals. 

o 

This  is  a  dangerous  method,  and  cesspools  should 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


be  constructed  of  brick  or  stonework  in  cement,  and 
should  be  rendered  with   an    impervious  material. 

They  should  be  domed  over  at 
the  top  and  fitted  with  an  air-tight 
manhole  cover  and  properly  ven- 
tilated, as  shown  in  111.  143,  the 
sewapfe  beinof  removed  about 
once  a  week  by  means  of  an  air- 
tight iron  cart.  If  it  is  possible 
some  other  means  of  dealing 
with  sewage  should  be  adopted. 

Irrigation — For  country  houses 
two  small  settling  tanks,  as  in 
111.  144,  can  be  used  alternately, 
so  that  one  may  be  cleaned  out 
while  the  other  is  in  operation, 
passing  through  the  tank  deposits 


Cesspool. 


III.  143. 

The  sewaofe  in 
a  certain  amount  of  the  solid  particles  and  the  screen, 
as  shown,  further  assists  to  arrest  them.  A  cake  of 
alumino-ferric  is  also  sometimes  used  for  the  purpose 


\w\i.r 


III.  144.    Settling  Tank. 


of  precipitating  the  solid  particles  to  the  bottom  of 
the  tank.  From  the  outgo  the  effluent,  which  must 
be  discharged  intermittently  over  various  portions  of 
the  ground,  is  conveyed  along  an  open  glazed  pipe 
to  a  small  irrigation  field,  and  branches  are  taken  over 
the  ground  in  different  directions. 


SEWAGE  AND  REFUSE  169 


The  value  of  the  disposal  of  sewage  by  irrigation 
was  formerly  much  overrated  and  erroneous  figures 
and  statements  were  put  before  the  public,  but  this 
was  chiefly  due  to  the  fallacious  supposition  that  the 
full  chemical  value  of  sewage  could  be  utilized  by  the 
ground  on  which  it  was  placed.  Sandy  soils  are  usually 
well  adapted  for  the  purpose,  but  clay  soils  are  entirely 
unsuited  for  sewage  irrigation,  although  they  have  in 
some  cases  been  rendered  more  suitable  by  the  plough- 
ing in  of  ashes  and  other  materials. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  subsoil  drains  are 
put  at  the  right  levels  to  ensure  that  the  effluent  from 
sewage  farms  shall  not  be  foul.  The  ground  is  usually 
prepared  on  the  ridge-and-furrow  system,  and  channels 
are  formed  in  the  ridges  so  that  the  sewage  may  flow 
over  them  into  the  furrows  in  a  uniform  stream. 

Italian  rye  grass  is  considered  one  of  the  best  crops 
to  raise  on  a  sewage  farm,  though  many  other  crops  are 
produced  in  various  localities. 

Many  towns  in  England  dispose  of  their  sewage  on 
this  principle,  notably  Norwich  and  Reading.  Berlin, 
which  has  a  population  of  over  one  million  and  a  half, 
has  thirty  million  gallons  of  sewage  treated  daily  on 
sewage  farms  which  have  an  area  of  nearly  twenty 
thousand  acres. 

Discharge  into  the  Sea — The  Local  Government  Board 
permit  of  sewage  being  discharged  into  the  sea  beyond 
low-water  level ;  but  this  should  not  be  done  unless 
there  is  a  well-defined  current  that  will  carry  it  away 
from  the  shore  without  any  chance  of  its  being  washed 
back. 

Discharge  into  Rivers — The  Public  Health  Act  (1875) 
and  the  Rivers  Pollution  Act  (1876)  were  drafted  for 
the  purpose  of  preventing  the  fouling  of  rivers  by  the 


lyo  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


discharge  of  crude  sewage  and  trade  effluents.  The 
Local  Government  Act  of  1888,  which  empowers  the 
County  Councils  to  enforce  the  Act  of  1876  and  gives 
powers  to  the  Local  Government  Board  to  form  and 
invest  Committees  with  powers  under  the  Act,  has 
done  something  to  prevent  our  rivers  from  becoming 
open  sewers. 

The  Treatment  of  Sewage — The  biological  treatment 
of  sewage  for  purification  dates  from  1891,  and  is  due 
to  the  practical  efforts  of  Mr.  Scott-Moncrieff. 

Nature  has,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  always  decomposed 
the  organic  matter  which  is  received  into  the  surface 
of  the  ground  by  means  of  organisms,  but  it  is  only  in 
recent  years  that  we  have  been  enabled  to  make  use 
of  the  life  processes  of  micro-organisms  which  were 
revealed  to  us  by  Warrington.  Sewage  contains  highly 
putrefactive  organic  matter,  and  the  object  of  the 
various  purification  schemes  is  to  remove  or  to  bring 
into  solution  the  solid  portions  of  such  matter  and  to 
effect  such  a  change  in  this  solution  as  will  render  it 
non-putrefactive. 

The  process  is  divided  into  two  stages,  viz.  the 
liquefying  of  the  organic  matter,  and  the  nitrifying  or 
mineralization  of  the  resulting  liquids. 

Two  classes  of  organisms  are  engaged  in  the  first 
process,  viz.  the  anaerobic,  which  exist  without  oxygen, 
and  the  aerobic  to  whom  oxygen  is  essential,  but  the 
aerobic  alone  are  capable  of  performing  the  second 
process. 

The  "Scott-Moncrieff"  System — This  was  the  first  in  which 
the  sequence  of  the  two  processes  was  recognized.  The 
first  is  carried  on  in  an  open  tank  which  is  filled  with 
large  stones  and  should  be  capable  of  containing  one 
day's  sewage.    This  enters  at  the  bottom  and  passes 


SEWAGE  AND  REFUSE  171 


upwards  and  onwards  continually.  The  liquefying 
organisms  form  dense  colonies  in  the  nidus  formed  by 
the  stones,  and  increase  in  proportion  to  the  work 
required,  and  an  effluent  without  solids  in  suspension 
is  produced  for  the  second  process. 

This  latter  is  carried  out  by  a  series  of  trays,  one 
above  the  other,  having  air  spaces  between  them.  The 
series  are  in  duplicate,  and  the  effluent  from  the  first 
process  is  delivered  alternately  over  the  surface  of  the 
upper  trays  by  means  of  a  tipping  trough.  The  liquid 
is  thus  conveyed  downwards  from  tray  to  tray  as  a 
heavy  dropping  liquid,  and  the  organisms  of  nitrifi- 
cation thus  have  to  deal  with  it  in  a  most  favourable 
form  until  it  finally  passes  away  to  an  outfall.  The 
system  appears  to  be  one  of  the  most  efficient  yet  in 
use,  as  it  occupies  little  space  and  attention.  It  has 
been  installed  in  the  drainage  system  of  the  country 
house  shown  in  111.  186. 

The  "Dibdin"  or  Sutton"  System  has  a  preliminary  pro- 
cess of  chemical  precipitation,  the  aeration  of  the 
resulting  effluent  being  obtained  by  intermittent  filtra- 
tion. Each  filter  bed  is  filled  up  and  allowed  to 
remain  for  an  hour  or  so  to  complete  the  nitrification, 
the  filtrate  then  being  drawn  off  and  the  bed  allowed 
to  remain  empty  for  over  an  hour  before  re-use. 

The  Septic  Tank"  System  was  devised  by  the  City  Sur- 
veyor for  Exeter,  and  the  first  stage  consists  of  a 
closed  chamber  through  which  the  sewage  passes 
slowly  to  allow  of  the  efficient  action  of  the  organisms 
of  liquefaction,  the  second  being  brought  about  by  a 
series  of  intermittent  filters  as  in  the  Dibdin  system. 

"Colonel  Ducat's"  System  aims  at  combining  the  two 
stages  of  liquefaction  and  nitrification  in  one  operation. 

A  chamber  eight  feet  deep  is  constructed,  having 


172  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


its  walls  composed  of  agricultural  drain  pipes,  all 
built  in  as  headers,  sloping  down  towards  the  interior 
of  the  chamber,  the  bottom  of  which  is  formed  in 
cement.  The  lowest  course  of  the  walls  is  built  with 
header  bricks  which  have  spaces  between  them  on 
plan  so  as  to  permit  the  liquid  to  fall  into  a  channel 
which  runs  all  round  the  outside  of  the  tank. 

This  latter  is  filled  with  layers  of  coke,  the  pieces 
decreasing  in  size  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  each 
layer  being  eighteen  inches  deep  and  separated  from 
those  above  and  below  by  an  aerated  layer  of  big 
stones. 

The  Oxygen  Sewage  Purification  System,  first  introduced  by 

Mr.  Kaye- Parry,  m.a.,  b.e.,  and  Professor  Adeney, 
may  be  briefly  described  as  follows  : — 

The  sewaoe  after  mechanical  subsidence  is  treated 
by  powerful  oxidizing  agents  such  as  Oxynite. 
This  is  one  of  the  best  deodorizing  precipitants 
known,  and  also  has  the  property  of  preventing  fer- 
mentation of  the  organic  matters  contained  in  the 
sludore  and  of  convertiniJ"  the  latter  into  the  humus  of 

o  o 

ordinary  soil.  The  sludge  therefore  becomes  a 
valuable  manure  and  may  be  stored  without  offensive 
smell.  The  effluent  is  then  treated  with  nitrate  of 
soda  which  really  assumes  the  place  of  the  ordinary 
filter  bed,  and  is  solely  used  as  a  means  of  supplying 
oxygen  to  all  parts  of  the  sewage  during  purification 
by  organisms. 

The  system  is  one  which  is  equally  applicable  to 
towns,  barracks,  factories,  hospitals  and  private  houses, 
for  no  large  space  is  required,  and  no  fuel  for 
machinery,  the  only  mechanism  being  a  water- 
wheel,  which  is  worked  by  the  flow  of  the  sewage 
itself 


SEWAGE  AND  REFUSE  173 

Ills.  145,  146,  147  show  this  process  as  now  in 
operation  at  Blarney  Castle,  where  the  installation 
was  erected  by  Mr.  Kaye-Parry,  and  it  is  by  his 
courtesy  that  the  drawings  are  published. 


III.  146.    Longitudinal  Section.       III.  147.    Transverse  Section. 
Kaye-Parry's  System. 


The  crude  sewage  passes  into  the  bottom  of  a  deep 
circular  tank  No.  i  by  means  of  a  cast-iron  pipe,  and 
the  liquid  rises  again  to  the  surface.  It  passes  out  by 
a  T-pipe  connection,  and  before  it  enters  tank  No.  2 
(111.  145)  it  passes  over  a  small  overshot  wheel  W 
which  drives  a  patent  automatic  feeding  machine  by 
which  a  regulated  quantity  of  oxynite  can  be  added  to 
the  liquid.  The  mixture  then  passes  into  tank  No.  2, 
which  is  similar  in  construction  to  tank  No.  i. 

The  solids  which  are  precipitated  by  the  oxynite 
are  retained  in  the  second  tank,  the  first  tank  merely 


174  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

intercepting  the  heavier  solids  which  are  thrown  down 
by  sedimentation.  The  clarified  liquid,  after  leaving 
tank  No.  2,  passes  into  a  small  rectangular  biological 
tank,  and  a  little  nitrate  of  soda  is  added  every  day. 
The  liquid  is  conducted  to  a  point  near  the  bottom  of 
this  tank  by  a  cast-iron  pipe  (see  111.  146). 

The  bacterial  action  takes  place  in  the  tank  and  the 
purified  liquid  passes  out  through  the  outfall  pipe  O 
direct  to  the  river. 

The  sludge  collected  in  the  two  tanks  is  pumped  up 
by  ordinary  chain  pumps,  and  is  conducted  by  an  open 
trough  into  a  sludge  tank  S  about  two  feet  square, 
from  which  it  is  drawn  off  by  a  sludge  cock  connected 
with  a  semi-spherical  outlet. 

An  ordinary  canvas  bag  is  attached  to  the  mouth  of 
the  outlet  C  B  and  the  sewao^e  falls  into  this  bae,  the 
liquid  being  drained  back  into  tank  No.  i,  after 
which  the  sludge  can  be  carried  away. 

The  Collection  and  Disposal  of  Refuse — The  refuse 
from  houses  is  now  removed  much  more  frequently 
than  formerly,  a  daily  collection  having  been  estab- 
lished in  many  urban  districts.  The  refuse  is  placed 
in  galvanized  iron  buckets  which  are  emptied  into  the 
removal  van,  and  the  buckets  are  disinfected  and 
returned  to  the  occupier. 

The  old-fashioned  brick  dustbin  which  was  emptied 
once  every  week  or  fortnight  is  not  to  be  commended, 
but  in  some  instances  it  is  unavoidable,  and  then  the 
floor  and  sides  of  the  bin  should  always  be  of  imper- 
vious materials. 

It  should  also  be  protected  from  the  effects  of  sun 
and  rain  and  should  be  as  far  as  possible  from  the 
house  and  from  any  source  of  water  supply.  It  is 
important  that  as  far  as  practicable  everything,  espe- 


SEWAGE  AND  REFUSE 


175 


cially  garbage  and  vegetable  matter,  should  be  burnt 
before  being  put  in  the  dustbin,  and  special  kitcheners 
are  now  manufactured  which  fulfil  this  purpose  by- 
means  of  a  firebox  under  the  grate. 

The  Disposal  of  Refuse  has  of  late  occupied  an  im- 
portant place  in  the  deliberations  of  local  authorities, 
and  refuse  destructors  have  multiplied  exceedingly 
within  the  last  few  years.  Some  local  authorities  sell 
refuse  to  brickmakers,  who  use  it  in  their  kilns  for 
firing,  but  this,  however,  causes  an  almost  intolerable 
nuisance  to  the  adjoining  owners.  Other  authorities 
endeavour  to  utilize  the  heat  from  the  combustion  of 
the  refuse  to  generate  steam  for  driving  dynamos,  but 
the  low  calorific  value  of  refuse  as  fuel  renders  the 
admixture  of  coal  necessary,  and  in  most  cases  it  is 
probably  more  economical  to  use  coal  alone. 

Refuse  Destructors — The  occupier  of  a  country 
mansion  is  well  advised  to  have  a  small  refuse  de- 
structor which  can  also  be  used  for  destroying 
garden  rubbish  and  weeds,  which  should  always  be 
burnt  at  once  in  order  to  avoid — that  bugbear  of  a  good 
gardener — the  rubbish  heap,  which  breeds  myriads  of 
insects  and  pests  to  destroy  his  handiwork. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


HEATING 

General  Principles— Open  Grates — Gas  Fires — Gas  Radiators — Closed 
Stoves — Hot-water  Heating  (Low-pressure  System  ;  Radiators  ;  High- 
pressure  System)— Steam  Heating — Electric  Heating — Hot-water  Do- 
mestic Supply  (The  Tank  and  Cylinder  Systems) — Kitchen  Ranges — 
Gas  and  Oil  Geysers. 

GENERAL  Principles — All  heating  arrangements 
must  be  considered  together  with  the  scheme 
of  ventilation  to  be  adopted  (see  chap.  xv.). 
Heat  is  termed  radiant  when  conveyed  in  a  straight 
line  from  a  heated  surface,  and  its  intensity  (like 
light)  is  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  square  of  the  distance. 
It  is  called  convexed  when  the  air  around  heated 
surfaces  becomes  warmed,  and  rises  while  the  sur- 
rounding cold  air  takes  its  place  ;  an  operation  which 
is  continually  repeated  till  all  the  air  is  warmed. 

Open  Grates — The  most  cheerful  and  pleasant 
method  of  heating  an  ordinary  room  is  by  means  of 
an  open  grate,  and  if  the  flue  is  properly  constructed, 
as  mentioned  in  chapter  iv.,  page  71,  and  chapter  v., 
page  81,  it  should  draw  well,  and  at  the  same  time 
help  to  ventilate  the  room. 

Slow-combustion  stoves  of  the  Pridgin-Teale  model 
are  a  vast  improvement  upon  the  old-fashioned  kinds, 
in  which  about  five-sixths  of  the  heat  went  up  the 
flue.  The  basis  of  his  improvements,  which  has  been 
followed  by  others,  was  the  use  of  firebrick  sides 
and  back  and  the  employment  of  small  front  and 

176 


HEATING 


177 


bottom  iron  bars  ;  these  are  necessary  to  keep  the 
coal  in  position,  but,  being  small  in  cross  section,  do 
not  hinder  combustion.  In  selecting  a  stove  the 
advisability  of  having  as  little  metal  as  possible  ad- 
jacent to  the  fire  should  always  be  borne  in  mind. 

The  Devon  fire.  111.  148,  is  a  sectional  elevation 
showinor  the   firebrick   sides  and 

o 

back,  the  latter  beinor  inclined  for- 
ward,  so  as  to  increase  the  intensity 
and  more  widely  diffuse  the  heat 
which  is  thrown  forward  into  the 


room  to  a  g^reater  extent  than  with 


TCinnc 


III.  148. 
The  Devon  Fire. 


the  old  grates.  This  illustration 
also  shows  the  trimmer  arch  formed 
in  the  floor  in  front  of  the  chimney 
opening,  in  order  to  support  the 
hearth  and  protect  the  floor  joists  from  the  heat. 
The  Bond  fire.  111.  149,  shows  the  movable  ashpan 
which  regulates  the  draught,  so 
that  more  perfect  combustion  can 
be  obtained  and  the  removal  of 
the  ashes  facilitated.  This  illus- 
tration also  indicates  how  a  supply 
of  fresh-warmed  air  can  be  ob- 
tained by  means  of  an  inlet  flue, 
fed  by  the  external  air,  which  is 
heated  by  the  fire. 

The  Well  fire   has  the  coals 

III.  149.   The  Bond  Fire,  pj^^^^    ^^^^^   ^    l^^^j^  perforated 

hearth,  underneath  which  is  a  small  chamber  lined  with 
fireclay,  in  which  air  is  heated  to  a  high  temperature 
before  passing  through  the  fire,  thus  ensuring  more 
perfect  combustion.  Air  is  often  supplied  to  the  fire 
by  ducts  contained  in  the  depth  of  the  front  hearth, 

IS 


178  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

The  Tilt  fire,  Ills.  150  and  151,  is  easily  ignited 
when  tilted  up  to  the  position  shown  in  111.  150, 
after  which  it  should  be  lowered  to  the  position 
shown  in  111.  151,  where  it  will  then  burn  for  some 


III.  150.  III.  151. 

The  Tilt  F'ire. 

hours  without  attention.  We  have  cured  some  rather 
bad  smoky  chimneys  by  its  use,  and  it  has  the  addi- 
tional advantage  that  in  appearance  it  resembles  an 
open  dog-grate,  and  can  be  removed  bodily  in  the 
summer  and  its  place  taken  by  flowers  or  shrubs. 

The  Nautilus  stove  is  of  the  dog  -  grate  type,  as 
shown  in  111.  152,  but  lacks  some  of  its  disadvan- 
tages. It  is  free  standing,  and  heat  is 
thus  radiated,  not  only  from  the  front, 
but  also  from  the  sides,  back  and  top. 
Extra  heating  surface  is  provided  by 
the  volute-shaped  hood  through  which 
the  heated  gases  from  the  fire  have 
to  pass  in  order  to  reach  the  flue  at 
the  back,  the  opening  into  which  is 
III.  152.  much  smaller  than  with  ordinary 
The  Nautilus  Fire,  ^toves.  Another  feature  is  the  wheels 
with  which  the  grate  is  provided,  so  that  it  may  be  re- 
moved in  the  summer  time.  It  is  sometimes  economical 
and  convenient  to  arrange  for  heating  two  or  three  small 
radiators  from  an  ordinary  fireplace,  and  this  has  been 
successfully  accomplished  with  the  above-mentioned 
3tove  in  conjunction  with  a  suitable  boiler  and  pipes. 


HEATING 


179 


Various  forms  of  stoves  are  made  by  the  leading 
manufacturers,  which  are  improvements  on  old  pat- 
terns. Some  people,  however,  prefer  to  have  the  fire 
direct  upon  the  ordinary  hearth  without  using  any 
grate  at  all,  but  we  have  not  found  this  method  very 
economical  or  serviceable  for  giving  heat. 

Gas  Fires — Gas  fires  are  now  used  somewhat  exten- 
sively, especially  in  bed  and  other  rooms  where  heat 
is  not  required  continuously.  Sometimes  the  heat  is 
radiated  by  means  of  asbestos  balls  placed  over 
Bunsen  burners,  which  render  them  incandescent.  A 
flue  should  always  be  provided  to  carry  off  the  un- 
healthy products  of  combustion. 

Gas  kitcheners  are  used  extensively  for  cooking 
purposes,  owing  to  their  cleanliness  and  the  facility 
with  which  they  can  be  brought  into  use. 

Gas  Radiators — Gas  radiators  of  various  types  are 
used,  being  similar  in  appearance  to  111.   159,  but 
the  Independent  circulating  hot- 
water   or    steam  -  gas  Radiators, 
although  suitable  for  halls  and  pas- 
sages, are  not  desirable  for  sitting- 
rooms,  as  they  vitiate  the  air  to 
some  extent.     The  radiators  are 
fitted  with   a  special  circulating 
boiler  connected  with  flow  and  re- 
turn tubes,  and  can  be  placed  in 
any  position,  as  they  only  require      welsbach  kern 
connecting  to  the  gas  supply.  They  Radiator. 
give  off  a  large  amount  of  heat  within  a  few  minutes 
of  lighting. 

111.  153  shows  a  radiator  with  a  Welsbach  Kern 
burner  formed  of  five  specially  prepared  perforated 
fireclay  candles,  which  marks  a  distinct  advance  in 


i8o  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


efficiency  and  economy.  This  fire  is  sufficient  to  heat 
a  room  about  twelve  feet  square,  while  a  radiator 
with  ten  tubes  suffices  for  a  room  about  eighteen  feet 
square.  In  the  latter  there  is  a  tap  at  each  side  of 
the  radiator  which  controls  five  of  the  tubes,  and 
consequently  either  five  or  ten  tubes  can  be  used  as 
required.  Five  tubes  will  consume  about  ten  feet  of 
gas  per  hour,  so  that  in  some  country  places  where 
gas  costs  as  much  as  four  to  five  shillings  per  thousand 
the  radiator  will  only  cost  about  one  halfpenny  per 
hour. 

Closed  Stoves— Closed  stoves  are  of  many  kinds, 
and  are  certainly  economical,  but  some  people  con- 
tend that  they  are  liable  to  render  the  air  over-dry 
and  cause  discomfort.  It  is  suggested  that  they  are  apt 
to  char  the  organic  matter  in  the  air  and  to  generate 
carbonic  oxide,  which  is,  of  course,  injurious  to  health, 
and  they  do  not  help  to  ventilate  the  room  in  the 
same  way  as  the  ordinary  open  grate. 

Personally  we  are  inclined  to  agree  with  Dr.  Glover 
Lyon  that  air  can  scarcely  be  rendered  over-dry  ;  and 
that  the  unpleasantness  is  due  to  the 
action  of  the  superheated  iron  pro- 
ducing some  chemical  chano-e  in  the 
atmosphere. 

111.  154  shows  a  closed  stove  which 
presents  a  somewhat  cheerful  appear- 
ance, owing  to  the  doors  being  fitted 
with  mica  panels.    The  dampers  are 
LL.  154.  arranpfed  that  when  the  stove  is 

Anthracite  Stove.  ^ 

burning  slowly  the  expense  for  fuel  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum,  while  by  altering  the  regulator 
the  heating  may  in  five  minutes  be  increased  to  its  full 
power.    It  has  been  specially  constructed  to  utilize 


HEATING 


i8i 


I?PTVI2/A 


smokeless  anthracite  coal  to  the  best  advantage  and 
can  be  placed  in  front  of  any  existing-  grate,  or  if  the 
latter  be  removed  it  can  be  provided  with  a  perforated 
ventilatinor  front.  It  is  contended  that  if  anthracite 
costs  thirty-five  shillings  per  ton,  a  twenty-five-inch 
stove  of  this  type  will  only  cost  about  twopence  for 
twelve  hours'  consumption.^ 

Hot -water  Heating  —  Heating  by  hot  water  is 
effected  either  by  the  low-  or  high-pressure  systems, 
in  both  of  which  the  circulation 
is  due  to  the  difference  in  weio  ht 
of  two  columns  of  water  con- 
nected tooether  in  one  con- 
tinuous  circuit.  When  one 
column  is  heated  the  water 
expands  and  rises,  being  forced 
upward  by  the  heavier  column 
pressing  against  its  base. 

Low-pressure  System — This  has 

many  advantages,  chiefiy  be- 
cause there  is  little  risk  of  fire 
and  an  even  temperature  is  ^ 
more  easily  mamtained.  111.  155  If   ||  , 
shows  a  system  on  this  principle,  "      ^"  ' 

the  fiow-pipe  rising,  as  shown, 
direct  from  the  boiler  to  the 
highest  level  of  the  circulation,  and  the  vertical  fall  of 
the  return  pipe  being  designed  at  the  end  of  the  cir- 
culation in  order  to  obtain  as  the  motive  power  the 
highest  vertical  column  of  the  coldest  water.  Dips  as 
dotted  at  A  and  B  tend  to  reverse  the  circulation.  The 
column  of  water  in  the  latter,  farthest  from  the  boiler, 
is  cooler  and  heavier  than  that  which  is  nearer. 

^  See  Architeciural  Hygiene^  p.  163. 


FLO\»' 
PIPE 


III.  155.  Low-pressure 
Hot-water  System. 


i82  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Means  of  escape  for  air  and  steam  are  essential, 
and  a  small  pipe  should  be  carried  up  well  above  the 
highest  water  level  and  be  provided  with  an  open  end 
as  shown.  A  recognized  calculation  on  this  subject  is 
that  one  superficial  foot  of  direct  heating  surface 
of  the  boiler  will  heat  fifty  feet  of  four-inch  pipes  ;  but 
it  is  found  best  to  allow  an  excess  of  at  least  twenty- 
five  per  cent  of  heating  surface,  in  order  to  allow  for 
improperly  swept  flues  and  indifferent  stoking.  The 


III.  156.    A  Saddle  Boiler.       III.  157.    A  Chambered  Boiler. 

ordinary  saddle  boiler  shown  in  111.  156  is  much  used, 
but  chambered  saddle  boilers,  as  shown  in  111.  157, 
have  a  greater  heating  surface,  and  are  more  suitable 
for  larger  systems. 

Boiler  chimneys  should  not  be  less  than  nine  inches 
square  in  area  for  every  hundred  feet  of  radiating 
surface. 

The  hot-water  heating  pipes  are  often  of  cast- 
iron,  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  joints 
should  be  properly  caulked  with  lead  and  spun-yarn, 
those  near  the  boiler  being  provided  with  sliding 
expansion  joints  to  prevent  leakage.  The  pipes 
should  be  painted  to  prevent  oxidation,  and  fitted 
with  valves  so  arranged  that  any  part  of  the  system 
may  be  shut  ofif  at  will.  Heating  pipes  should  always 
be  placed  above  ground  level,  and  should  not  be 
cased,  so  that  they  may  be  easily  examined  and 
cleaned  periodically.    They  should  never  be  laid  in 


HEATING  1S3 

trenches  and  covered  with  gratings,  as  the  former 
become  receptacles  for  dirt. 

The  following  table  calculated  by  Hood  gives  the 
length  of  pipe  required  for  every  1000  cubic  feet  of 
space  in  different  cases,  and  if  the  apartments  are 
thoroughly  ventilated  twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent 
must  be  added. 


Tempera- 

Length 

OF  Pipe. 

Nature  of  Building. 

ture 

Required. 

4  in. 

3  iri- 

2  in. 

ft. 

ft. 

ft. 

Dwelling-rooms . 

65 

12 

16 

24 

70 

14 

19 

28 

Drying  -  rooms  for 

linen,  etc. 

1  20^ 

150-180  200- 

-240  300- 

-360 

Greenhouses  and  con- 

servatories 

55' 

35 

47 

70 

Graperies  and  stove- 

houses  . 

65-70- 

45 

60 

90 

Pineries,  hothouses, 

cucumber  pits 

80 

55 

74 

1 10 

A  cistern  regulated  by  a  ball-valve  should  be  fixed 
above  the  highest  water  level,  as  shown  in  111.  155, 
to  supply  the  loss  of  water  due  to  evaporation. 

Radiators — Coils  and  radiators  in 
connection  with  the  fiow  and  re- 
turn pipes  are  placed  in  suitable 
positions  in  order  to  obtain  a 
larger  amount  of  heating  surface. 
A  simple  form  of  double  coil  is 
shown  in  111.  158,  which  is  some- 
times screened  by  a  perforated 
iron  case,  but  this  is  objectionable,  as  it  facilitates  the 

^  This  is  the  temperature  when  empty ;  when  filled  with  wet  linen  about 
80  degrees.  -  In  coldest  weather. 


III.  158. 
A  Hot-water  Coil. 


i84  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


OVTGO 


collection  of  dirt.  Radiators,  as  shown  in  111.  159, 
have  lately  been  much  simplified  and  improved  in 
design,  and  are  therefore  to  be  preferred  to  coils. 

In  houses  which  have  a  sittino--hall  of  sufficient 
size  it  is  often  desirable  that  the  hall  fire  should  be 
the  means  of  heating  not  only  the  sitting-hall  and 
passages,  but  also  some  of  the  other  rooms.  111.  195 
shows  a  fireplace  where  a  system  was 
arranged  by  which  the  fire  not  only 
heated  the  hall  but  also  a  boiler  which 
served  three  radiators  situated  in  the 
entrance  hall,  loggia  and  staircase.  This 
seems  to  us  an  economical  and  success- 
ful method,  for,  as  a  rule,  a  boiler  in 
any  heating  scheme  is  situated  in  a 
specially  constructed  basement,  and  a 
good  deal  of  the  heat  from  the  furnace 
itself  is  thus  wasted. 
High-pressure  System— This  System  has  a  continuous 
circuit  of  wrought  -  iron  welded  tubing,  generally 
about  ^  in.  diameter,  about  one-tenth  of  the  total 
length  of  piping  being  formed  into  a  coil  and  placed 
in  a  furnace  in  which  the  temperature  can  be  raised 
to  about  380  degrees  Fahr.  A  pipe  is  placed  at  the 
top  of  the  flow  in  order  to  provide  room  for  the 
expansion  of  the  heated  water.  The  whole  apparatus 
being  sealed,  the  water  becomes  rapidly  heated  and 
cools  quickly,  and  it  is  therefore  considered  that  this 
system  is  more  economical  for  rooms  that  are  not 
frequently  used.  A  disagreeable  smell  is  sometimes 
noticed  from  this  system  owing  to  the  high  tempera- 
ture, for  the  same  reason  as  mentioned  when  dis- 
cussing closed  stoves. 

Steam  Heating— Heating  by  steam  is  not  used  to 


III.  159. 

A  Hot-water 
Radiator. 


HEATING 


the  same  extent  as  hot  water,  as  it  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  control,  but  where  waste  steam  is  available 
it  is  convenient  and  economical.  Steam  coils  are 
fixed  in  the  same  way  as  those  for  hot  water,  but  they 
are  smaller  pro  rata  than  the  latter  owing  to  their 
high  temperature.  The  utilization  of  exhaust  or  low- 
pressure  steam  as  a  means  of  heating  has  been 
extensively  adopted  in  the  United  States,  as  men- 
tioned in  Architectural  Hygiene,  but  its  use  in  this 
country  has  mostly  been  confined  to  the  working  of 
low-pressure  hot-water  apparatus. 

Electric  Heating — The  cheerful  appearance  of  an 
open  fire  would  probably  prevent  an  extended  use 
of  electricity  for  heating  even  if  the  cost  were  of  no 
consideration.  This  form  of  heatinor  is  successful  in 
certain  cases,  and  especially  in  town  houses,  because 
the  heat  can  be  turned  on  at  once,  and  it  is  a  clean 
and  wholesome  way  of  providing  warmth. 

111.  1 60  shows  the  Prometheus  electric  radiator,  which 
simply  requires  attaching  to  a  wall  plug  connected 
with  an  electric  current,  when  it  will 
immediately  commence  to  radiate  heat,  p^f""^ 
This  radiator  consists  primarily  of  resist- 
ances composed  of  metallic  films  deposited 
on  insulating  bases  composed  of  thin  mica 
sheets,  and  the  film  is  protected  from 
mechanical  injury  by  enclosure  in  a  metal 
case  from  which  it  is  efficiently  insulated. 
Electrical  continuity  is  established  by 
means  of  flat  metal  terminals  in  close  con- 
tact with  the  two  ends  of  the  film.  The 
apparatus,  unlike  wire-coil  systems,  is  practically  free 
from  self-induction  and  consequently  absorbs  the  same 
power  at  any  definite  voltage,  whether  used  on  con- 


III.  160. 

Prometheus 
Electric 
Radiator. 


i86  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


tinuous  or  alternating  currents,  and  is  independent  oi 
the  frequency  of  the  latter. 

  111.  i6i  shows  an  electric  cook- 
ing stove,  which  is  cleanly  in 
operation  and  takes  up  little  room. 
111.  162  illustrates  an  electric  flat- 
iron  and  111.  163  shows  an  electric 
kettle,  both  of  which  are  much 
used  nowadays  ;  as  also  are  hot 
plates,  which  are  useful  where 
electric  current  is  available. 

The  cost  is  the  great  drawback 
to  cooking  by  electricity,  but  the  time  must  come 
when  this  will  be  reduced,  although  at  one  penny  per 
unit  it  is  not  very  much  more  expensive  than  ordinary 


III.  161.  Electric 
Cooking  Stove. 


III.  162. 

Electric  Flat-Iron. 


III.  163. 

Electric  Kettle. 


coal.  Electric  radiators  are  portable  and  convenient 
for  airing  the  rooms,  and  if  plugs  are  provided  they 
can  be  moved  about  at  will. 

Hot-water  Domestic  Supply — The  principles  involved 
in  the  supply  of  hot  water  are  the  same  as  those  for 
heating  domestic  buildings.  The  pipes  of  the  hot- 
water  supply  should  be  of  wrought  galvanized  iron, 
not  less  than  one  inch  in  diameter,  as  lead  pipes  are 
apt  to  sag  and  thus  impede  the  circulation. 


HEATING  187 

(Chapter  vii.  has  already  dealt  with  the  cold-water 
supply  of  the  house  and  fittings.) 


EXPANSION 
PIPE 


III.  164.    The  Tank  Hot-water  System. 

There  are  two  systems  in  general  use,  viz.  the 
Tank  System  and  the  Cylinder  System. 


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THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


The  Tank  System — This  System  is  showii  in  111.  164. 
The  boiler  is  heated  by  the  kitchen  fire,  and  may 
be  of  either  the  saddle  variety,  as  before  shown 
(111.  156),  or  of  the  tubular  type.  But  in  large  houses 
an  independent  boiler  and  furnace  should  be  used,  if  a 
constant  supply  of  hot  water  is  required. 

Boilers  should  have  a  safety  valve,  as  shown  in 
111.  164,  attached  to  a  pipe  that  is  not  in  connection 
with  the  circulation.     There  are  several  kinds  of 

safety  valves,  and  111.  165  shows 
Turnbull's  patent  spring  safety 
valve  in  which  the  plug  is  at- 
tached to  a  strong  spring  at  the 
top,  the  other  end  is  fixed  so  that 
when  the  valve  is  open  the  spring 
is  in  tension,  and  when  the  extra 
pressure  of  steam  is  reduced  the 
spring  forces  back  the  plug  into 
position.  Safety  valves  are  use- 
less unless  of  good  manufacture, 
and  they  should  be  so  fixed  that 
they  can  be  conveniently  in- 
spected at  regular  intervals. 

In  111.  164  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  fiow  pipe  is  connected 
to  the  top  of  the  boiler  and  the  return  pipe  to 
the  bottom.  All  branch  pipes  supplying  hot  water  to 
the  various  fittings  should  be  connected  to  both  of  the 
above  pipes,  and  should  enter  the  return  pipe  at  a 
lower  level  than  the  flow  pipe.  Where,  however,  a 
fitting  is  quite  close  to  the  flow  pipe  this  is  not  so 
necessary,  as  the  amount  of  cold  water  to  be  drawn 
out  of  the  branch  pipe,  which  does  not  form  part  of 
the  main  circulation,  is  small. 


JOUTLET. 


III.  165.    Safety  Valve. 


HEATING 


An  expansion  pipe  for  steam  and  air  should  be 
connected  to  the  top  of  the  hot-water  cistern  and 
carried  above  the  level  of  the  cold-water  cistern. 


510P 

M  -A 

BOILCer-» 


III.  i66.    The  Cylinder  Hot-water  System. 


190 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


The  cold-water  cistern,  which  is  controlled  by  a  ball 
valve,  supplies  the  hot-water  cistern  with  water,  and 
the  hot-water  cistern  is  placed  above  the  highest 
fitting  for  which  hot  water  is  required. 

The  Cylinder  System — This  system  is  shown  in  111.  166 
and  is  now  generally  held  to  possess  important 
advantages  over  the  Tank  System  because  it  operates 
more  quickly,  a  temporary  failure  of  the  cold-water 
supply  does  not  stop  the  circulation,  more  hot  water 
can  be  withdrawn  before  its  temperature  is  lowered, 
and  the  risk  of  incrustation  is  less  owine  to  the  shorter 
circulation  of  the  pipes  between  the  boiler  and  the 
cylinder.  The  principal  difference  lies  in  the  fact  that 
the  reserve  of  hot  water  (i.e.  the  cylinder)  is  at  the 
base  of  the  flow  pipe  instead  of  at  the  top,  as  in  the 
Tank  System  (111.  164).  A  coil  heated  by  steam 
is  sometimes  enclosed  in  a  cylinder  to  heat  the  water, 
but  it  is  not  advantaoeous  to  use  this  method  if  steam 

o 

has  to  be  generated  especially  for  this  purpose. 

111.  167  shows  a  combined 
radiator  and  towel-drier  con- 
nected to  the  hot-water  supply 
and  generally  placed  in  bath- 
rooms. Coils  of  hot  -  water 
pipes  are  also  frequently  used 
to  warm  linen  rooms  or  cup- 
boards. 

When  either  system  is  used 
it  is  advisable  to  place  the 
hot-water  cistern  or  cylinder 
in  a  linen  closet  in  order  that 
it  may  air  the  linen  and  clothes.  It  has,  however, 
the  disadvantage  of  becoming  dirty  soon,  so  that  it  is 
impossible  to  leave  the  things  therein  for  long. 


III.  167. 

Combined  Radiator  and 
Towel-drier. 


HEATING  191 

Kitchen  Ranges — The  boiler  in  both  the  tank  and 
the  cylinder  hot  water  systems  is  usually  set  in  the 
kitchen  range,  so  that  this  performs  the  double  duty  of 
cooking  and  heating  the  water.  Where,  however,  much 
hot  water  is  required  or  many  baths  are  used  success- 
ively, it  is  advisable  to  have  an  additional  separate  and 
independent  boiler  as  shown  in  111.  166,  page  189  ; 
another  advantage  is  that  in  the  summer  hot  baths 
can  thus  be  supplied  without  lighting  the  kitchen  fire. 
There  are  many  kinds  of  kitcheners  on  the  market, 
and  many  boilers  of  various  shapes.  In  selecting 
these  fittings  care  should  be  taken  that  the  boiler  has 
a  sufficient  heating  surface  for  the  work  that  it  has  to 
do  and  that  the  flues  to  the  same  can  be  easily  cleaned. 
It  should  also  be  ascertained  that  the  thickness  of  the 
metal  to  the  top  plate  of  the  kitchener  is  not  less  than 
three  quarters  of  an  inch. 

Gas  and  Oil  Geysers — These  are  much  used  nowa- 
days, and  if  ventilated  to  the  open  air  and  fitted  with 
a  dual  tap  controlling  both  the  water  and  gas  they 
may  be  used  with  safety.  Geysers,  indeed,  are  a 
great  boon  to  those  who  cannot  rely  upon  the  kitchen 
fire  being  lit  sufficiently  early  to  get  the  water  heated 
for  their  morning  bath,  and  are  useful  for  the  reason 
that  any  number  of  hot  baths  can  be  obtained  in- 
dependently of  the  ordinary  hot-water  supply. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


LIGHTING 

Natural  Lighting  :  Size  of  Windows,  Glazing,  Reflectors,  Luxfer 
Prisms — Artificial  Lighting  :  Candles  and  Lamps,  Gas,  Acetylene, 
Air  Gas,  Electric  Light,  Accumulators,  Transformers,  Switches,  Fuses, 
Wiring— Fittings  :  Lamps,  Tantalum  Lamps  and  Osram  Lamps  com- 
pared. Electric  Arc  Lamps,  Cost  of  Electric  Installation,  Cost  of  Gas 
and  Electricity. 

NATURAL  Lighting— If  healthy  conditions  are 
to  be  maintained  in  the  home,  the  necessity 
for  sufficient   hght  cannot  be  too  strongly 
emphasized. 

The  position  of  openings  for  the  admission  of  Hght 
was  studied  by  the  Romans.  In  the  Pantheon  at 
Rome  they  demonstrated  that  Hght  has  a  greater 
iHuminatinor  value  when  admitted  through  a  hori- 
zontal  aperture  in  the  ceiling  than  when  admitted 
through  vertical  openings  in  the  wall.  The  diameter 
of  the  eye  of  the  Pantheon  dome  is  only  27  feet, 
and  yet  the  building  is  comfortably  and  sufficiently 
lighted,  though  each  superficial  foot  of  lighting  area 
has  to  light  nearly  3400  cubic  feet  of  the  interior. 

xA^partments  lit  by  means  of  ordinary  windows 
should,  if  possible,  have  an  odd  number  to  obviate  a 
central  pier  which  is  apt  to  cast  a  shadow,  and  thus 
give  a  gloomy  effect  to  a  room. 

Size  of  Windows— The  size  of  wlndows  is  regulated 
by  the  climate,  and  the  laws  laid  down  by  Vitruvius, 
Palladio  and  Scammozzi,  for  the  sunny  climate  and 

192 


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193 


bright  atmosphere  of  Italy,  are  scarcely  applicable 
to  England. 

Sir  William  Chambers  recommended  that  the 
depth  and  height  of  the  rooms  on  the  principal  floors 
should  be  added  together,  and  one-eighth  part  there- 
of should  be  taken  for  the  width  of  the  windows. 
Robert  Morris  recommended  that  the  superficial  area 
of  the  lighting  surface  in  feet  should  equal  the  square 
root  of  the  cubical  contents  of  the  room.  Gwilt  was 
of  opinion  that  one  square  foot  of  lighting  centrally 
placed  in  one  vertical  wall  of  a  square  room  is  suffi- 
cient for  every  100  cubic  feet.  This  calculation  is 
based  on  the  supposition  that  the  building  is  free 
from  obstruction  by  high  objects  in  the  vicinity. 

The  model  By-Laws  of  the  Local  Government 
Board  require  that  the  area  of  the  windows  be  at 
least  one-tenth  of  the  floor  area  of  the  room,  and 
this  requirement  is  also  incorporated  in  the  London 
Building  Acts  of  1 894-1 909.  It  is  well  to  remember 
that  by  keeping  the  window  frames  flush  with  the 
external  face  of  the  wall,  as  mentioned  in  chapter  iv., 
page  63,  a  larger  angle  of  light  is  admitted,  as  shown 
in  111.  22.  The  architectural  treatment  of  windows 
has  been  considered  in  chapter  iii.,  page  47,  chapter  iv., 
page  61,  and  chapter  vi.,  page  98. 

Glazing— The  glazing  of  windows  is  effected  by 
means  of  pla.te  or  sheet  glass,  the  former  of  which 
affords  less  resistance  to  the  admission  of  light  and 
is  not  so  easily  penetrated  by  sound.  Cathedral 
tinted  or  roughened  glass,  which  may  be  obtained 
in  many  varieties,  may  be  used  in  lavatories,  bath- 
rooms, etc.,  where  it  is  intended  to  act  as  a  screen. 

Reflectors— External  reflectors  are  sometimes  neces- 
sary for  windows  facing  narrow  thoroughfares  and 
13 


194  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


for  lighting  basement  apartments,  as  they  help  to 
throw  the  light  into  the  back  portion  of  the  rooms. 

Luxfer  Prisms  are  designed  upon  the 
laws  of  refraction,  being  usually  fixed 
to  the  upper  half  of  the  window  nearly 
flush  with  the  outer  surface  of  the 
wall,  as  shown  in  111.  i68.  Basements 
in  town  houses  may  be  lighted  by  pave- 
ment lenses,  which  throw  the  light  down 
on  to  a  luxfer  canopy,  the  latter  in 


turn   refracting  the  light   in   a  hori- 


III.  i68. 

Luxfer  Prisms 


zontal  direction  to  the  rear  of  the  apart- 
ment, as  shown  in  111.  169. 
The  facing  of  obstructing  walls  with  white  glazed 
ciles,  or  even  painting  them  white, 
does  something  to  assist  the  reflection 
of  natural  light  into  such  rooms. 

Artificial    Lighting— Candles  and  Lamps 

are  still  largely  used  for  the  lighting 
of  private  houses,  especially  those 
situated  in  the  country,  even  when 
other  methods  of  lighting  are  avail- 
able, but  to  minimize  danger  from  fire 
great  care  should  be  exercised. 

Gas  was  first  used  for  illuminating  pur- 
poses at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  since 
then  its  manufacture  has  been  much  improved,  although 
it  has  been  stated  that  one  gas  burner  will  consume 
as  much  oxygen  and  give  out  as  much  carbonic 
acid  as  six  men.  Gas  is  supplied  at  varying  pres- 
sures,  and  hence  it  is  advisable  to  have  a  Governor 
fixed  near  the  meter  in  order  to  maintain  an  equal 
pressure.  111.  170  is  a  section  taken  through  a 
Stott   Governor,  in  which   the  opening   from  the 


III,  169. 

Luxfer  Prisms. 


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195 

amount  of 


III.  170,    A  Stott  Gas 
Governor. 


RPGULATOI 


RCGULATOR, 


main  varies   in   size  according   to  the 
pressure. 

The  practice  of  turning  off 
the  gas  at  the  meter  every 
nioht  is  not  to  be  commended 

<_5 

because  the  taps  to  some  of 
the  fittings  may  be  left  open  ; 
and  when  the  gas  is  turned  on 
the  next  day  it  escapes,  and 
an  accident  is  probable. 

There  were  two  forms  of  old- 
fashioned  gas-burners  known 
as  the  Fish-tail  and  the  Bat- 
wing,  but  these  are  now  seldom 

used,  owing  to  the  introduction  of 
the  Welsbach  incandescent  mantle 
which  created  a  revolution  in  light- 
ing. These  mantles  are  somewhat 
fragile,  but  their  manufacture  has 
been  improved  in  recent  years. 

Inverted  incandescent  burners 
have  been  introduced  in  which  the 
mantles  are  attached  by  means  of 
small  projections  around  the  rim. 
The  Bland  burner  (111.  171)  has 
been  used  with  satisfactory  results 
and  the  patent  mantle  carrier  is  an 
advance  upon  others.  All  users  of 
incandescent  oras  know  the  bother 
that  ensues  with  by-passes  ;  but  in 
some  of  the  later  fittings  this  has 
been  to  some  extent  overcome. 

III.  171.    Inverted        -pi       o  ^-       r^'  ^  n 

Incandescent  he   rneumatic    Distance  Gas 

Burner.         Lighter  does  away  with  one  of  the 


196 


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inconveniences  of  gas  lighting,  as  it  operates  the  by- 
pass of  the  burner  upon  a  similar  principle  to  that 
which  obtains  in  the  Bowden  Brake,  so  familiar  to 
cyclists.  The  light  can  be  turned  on  by  pressing  or 
pulling  a  button  situated  in  some  convenient  position 
in  the  room  ;  with  this  fitting  gas  lighting  possesses 
one  of  the  advantaoes  of  electric  lig^ht. 

Acetylene  gas  is  made  by  adding  water  to  calcium 
carbide,  and  is  now  being  used  to  some  extent  in  the 
country,  especially  where  electric  current  is  not  avail- 
able, as  the  generating  plant  required  is  somewhat 
simple  ;  but  the  clogging  of  the  burners  and 
the  disagreeable  smell  are  two  great  disadvantages 
which  are  difficult  to  overcome.  The  illuminating 
property  of  acetylene  is  much  greater  than  coal-gas 
and  its  combustion  does  not  evolve  carbonic  acid. 
The  plant  for  100  lights  costs  between  ^60  and  ^100. 

Air  gas  is  manufactured  by  the  admixture  of  air 
with  the  vapour  of  a  combustible  liquid,  but  the  great 
disadvantage  hitherto  was  that  hot-air  engines  have 
been  used  in  its  manufacture  and,  on  the  temperature 
of  the  vapour  becoming  lowered,  liquefaction  occurred 
with  the  consequent  danger  and  in- 
convenience of  the  stoppage  of  the 
system. 

The  De  Laitte  system  (shown 
in  111.  172)  claims  to  obviate  this 
nuisance,  as,  by  means  of  a  revolv- 
ing drum,  the  air  is  sucked  into 
the  carburettor,  into  which  petrol 
is  measured  in  such  a  way  that  a 
fixed  quantity  of  air  and  spirit  is 
evaporated. 

The  comparative  cost  of  a  40  candle-power  lamp 


III.  172. 

De  I.aitte  System. 


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197 


per  hour  is  worked  out  by  the  De  Laitte  Company 


as  follows  : — 

Electric  light  @  46.  per  unit   ....  l^d. 

Acetylene  (calcium  carbide)  @  2d.  per  lb.       .  ^d. 

Paraffin  @  yd.  per  gallon        ....  Id. 

Coal-gas  @  3s.  per  1000  feet   ....  |d. 


De  Laitte  Light,  petrol  @  is.  4d.  per  gallon   .  j^d. 

The  Aerogen  Gas  Generator  actuated  by  clock- 
work, and  the  Michelite  non-explosive  air-gas  in 
which  the  motive  force  consists  of  water  from  an 
ordinary  tap,  are  other  systems. 

The  makers  of  the  Michelite  system  give  the 
following  comparative  table  of  cost  for  maintaining 
100  candle-power  for  ten  hours  or  its  equivalent, 
assuming  coal-gas  at  3s.  per  1000  feet  and  electricity 


at  3|d.  per  unit  : — 

s.  d. 

Acetylene  13 

Electric  incandescent  12 

Coal-gas  10 

Incandescent  gas         .       .       .       .  .02^ 
Michelite "  air-gas  o  ij-if 


Electric  Light  possesses  many  advantages  over  other 
illuminants,  for  it  is  easily  switched  on  and  off,  and 
can  be  used  in  positions  where  it  would  not  be  safe  to 
have  gas,  while  it  does  not  consume  the  oxygen,  foul 
the  air  or  deteriorate  decorations. 

The  definitions  of  the  following  terms  may  be 
found  of  use  : — 

An  Ampere  is  the  unit  of  quantity,  a  Volt  is  the 
unit  of  pressure,  a  Watt"  is  an  ampere  multiplied  by 
a  volt,  an  Ohm  is  the  unit  of  electrical  resistance 
and  a  Megohm  is  a  million  ohms. 

An  electrical  horse-power  (E.H.P.)  is   equal  to 


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746  watts — thus  a  current  of  7*46  amperes  at  100 
volts  pressure  is  equal  to  one  E.H.P.  A  Board  of 
Trade  unit  is  the  standard  measure  of  output,  and 
this  consists  of  1000  watt-hours,  and  thus  10  amperes 
of  current  at  100  volts  pressure  for  one  hour  is  equal 
to  one  Board  of  Trade  unit. 

Current,  when  obtained  from  a  public  supply 
station,  is  usually  more  economical  than  when  pro- 
duced by  a  private  installation. 

Electricity  is  produced  by  means  of  a  dynamo,  in 
which  coils  of  copper  wire  pass  rapidly  before  the 
poles  of  powerful  electric  magnets.  These  coils  of 
copper  are  wound  on  an  iron  core,  which  is  called  an 
armature,  and  the  current  thus  generated  in  the  coils 
is  led  to  a  commutator,  from  which  it  is  collected  by 
brushes  and  conducted  away  to  the  switch-boards, 
and  from  thence  to  the  supply  mains.  Electricity  for 
public  supply  is  often  generated  at  a  very  high 
pressure,  so  that  the  size  of  the  copper  cables  may 
be  kept  as  small  as  possible  ;  but  if  the  pressure  is 
lowered  for  the  same  total  energy,  of  course  a  larger 
cable  is  required. 

Dynamos  are  usually  driven  by  steam  engines 
when  a  large  supply  is  required,  but  gas  and  oil 
engines  are  used  for  small  installations,  especially  for 
country  houses,  where  they  are  satisfactory  and 
efficient,  those  oil  engines  with  the  top  feed  being 
preferable,  as  the  pump  feed  seems  to  be  liable  to  fail 
occasionally  from  choking. 

A  Suction  Gas  Producer  Plant,  in  combination  with 
a  gas  engine,  is  a  very  economical  method,  and 
consists  of  a  generator,  a  scrubber  for  cleaning  and 
cooling  the  gas,  and  an  expansion  chamber. 

The  generator  is  a  cast-iron  ash-box  containing  a 


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199 


firegrate  and  bars,  above  which  is  the  generator 
casing,  lined  with  firebrick,  and  a  vapour  chamber, 
which  is  partially  filled  with  water,  heated  by  the  hot 
erases  cominor  from  the  fuel  in  the  Generator.  Im- 
mediately  over  the  vapour  chamber  is  the  fuel 
chamber  and  charging  hopper,  through  which  the 
fuel  is  supplied  to  the  generator. 

The  scrubber  is  made  of  steel  plates,  and  is  filled 
with  coke,  over  which  water  is  automatically  sprinkled, 
and  this  serves  to  clean  and  cool  the  gas  after  leaving 
the  generator  on  its  way  to  the  engine. 

After  the  machine  has  been  started,  the  suction 
pull  from  the  engine  draws  a  mixture  of  air  and 
steam  from  the  vapour  chamber  through  the  in- 
candescent fuel  in  the  generator,  where  it  is  de- 
composed into  a  composition  generally  known  as 
producer  gas. 

Welsh  anthracite  coal  is  employed  as  fuel  on 
account  of  its  freedom  from  tarry  matter,  but  other 
fuels  may  be  used  if  proper  provision  is  made  for 
cleaning  the  gas.  A  10  h.  p.  gas  engine  can  be 
worked  in  conjunction  with  the  gas  plant  at  a  cost  of 
one-tenth  of  a  penny  per  brake  horse-power  per 
hour  or  about  one-fifth  the  cost  of  using  ordinary  gas. 

Turbines,  as  shown  in  111.  54,  consisting  of  a  wheel 
which  is  made  to  revolve  by  the  water  impinging 
against  vanes  fitted  to  its  circumference,  may  be  used 
where  water  -  power  can  be  obtained.  Where  the 
water-power  is  small,  storage  batteries  should  be 
used,  so  that  the  dynamo  can  be  worked  continuously, 
and  when  lighting  is  required  both  dynamo  and 
batteries  can  supply  the  current. 

Accumulators — Storage  batteries  or  accumulators  con- 
sist of  a  number  of  cells  containing  sulphuric  acid, 


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water  and  lead  plates.  When  the  current  is  turned 
on  a  chemical  change  takes  place  until  the  battery  is 
charged,  and  this  will  be  indicated  by  bubbles  of 
hydrogen  freely  rising  in  the  electrolyte.  When  the 
battery  is  discharging  on  to  the  mains  the  chemical 
action  is  reversed  and  the  current  is  given  off. 
Batteries  should  be  placed  on  racks  and  should  be 
separated  from  the  engine-room,  as  the  gases  they 
give  off  corrode  the  machinery  ;  they  should  also  be 
used  regularly,  as  they  deteriorate  if  not  worked. 

The  current  is  conducted  by  copper  wires,  one  of 
which  (the  positive)  conveys  the  outward  current,  and 
the  other  (the  negative)  conveys  the  returning  current 
to  the  source  of  supply.  These  wires  must  be  in- 
sulated for  the  whole  of  their  distance  by  covering 
them  with  an  insulating  coating,  such  as  vulcanized 
rubber,  after  which  they  are  fixed  in  the  building  as 
described  below. 

Transformers — High-pressure  Current  exceeding  250 
volts  beinor  danorerous  must,  however,  not  be  delivered 
for  domestic  supply,  and  a  transformer  is  therefore 
used  which  converts  a  small  current  at  high  pressure 
into  a  larger  current  at  low  pressure.  Thus  40 
amperes  at  2000  volts  can  be  transformed  into  800 
amperes  at  100  volts,  both  being  equal  to  80,000 
watts.  The  transformers  are  usually  placed  in  sub- 
stations, cellars  or  other  suitable  positions  for  the 
distribution  of  electricity  at  low  pressure  to  the  house 
mains. 

Switches — A  double-pole  switch  should  be  used  at 
the  point  where  the  wires  enter  the  house,  as  this  will 
allow  the  negative  and  positive  conductors  to  be  cut 
off  from  the  main.  Any  number  of  switches  may  be 
used  in  an  installation,  so  that  the  light  may  be  turned 


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20I 


on  and  off  as  may  be  most  convenient,  and  switches 
may  also  be  placed  on  the  fittings  themselves.  A 
switch  should  always  be  placed  conveniently  just 
inside  or  outside  a  room,  so  that  the  light  may  be 
turned  on  or  off  with  convenience. 

A  Fuse  consists  of  a  piece  of  lead  or  tin  wire  pro- 
portioned so  that  if  the  current  is  greater  than  the 
circuit  should  carry,  this  wire  will  melt  and  stop  the 
supply.  A  double-pole  fuse  should  be  placed  by  the 
switch  at  the  point  of  entry  to  the  house  and  on  every 
branch  service  throuorhout  the  buildinor. 

Wiring — The  wires  may  be  fixed  by  many  methods, 
viz.  wooden  casing,  concentric  wiring,  steel-armoured 
and  insulating  conduits,  etc.  ;  the  regulations  of  various 
insurance  companies  differ  on  this  subject. 

Wooden  casing  is  the  most  usual  method  adopted 
for  enclosing  the  wires  ;  it  is  either  run  along  the  ex- 
ternal face  of  the  plaster  or  is  buried  in  it,  but  the  latter 
is  objectionable  as  it  is  difficult  to  get  at  the  wires  and 
damage  is  caused  to  plaster  owing  to  the  shrinkage  of 
the  wood.  Wood  casing  should  always  be  varnished, 
to  prevent  dampness  destroying  the  efficiency  of  the 
installation. 

A  system  much  used  on  the  Continent  consists  of 
insulated  conductors,  which  are  run  side  by  side  upon 
porcelain  knobs  on  the  surface  of  the  wall. 

Concentric  wiring  consists  of  insulating  the  positive 
copper  wire  with  rubber  or  other  material  and  wind- 
ing the  negative  wire  concentrically  round  such 
insulation,  the  whole  being  enveloped  in  lead.  An 
extra  sheathing  of  steel  wires  may  be  used  outside 
the  lead  envelope  and  the  negative  conductor  must 
be  run  to  earth. 

Steel-armoured  insulating  conduits  are  preferred  by 


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many  authorities.  Iron  piping  has  been  extensively- 
used,  but  there  is  much  to  be  said  against  it,  owing  to 
the  occurrence  of  short  circuits,  the  Hability  of  con- 
densation and  the  abrasion  of  the  insulatinor  material 
from  the  wires,  caused  by  the  jagged  nature  of  the 
jointing. 

Tinned  brass  tubes  are  found  in  practice  to  be  more 
or  less  free  from  condensation.  The  Kalkos  is  one  of 
various  forms  of  tubing  which  has  been  in  vogue 
during  recent  years,  the  idea  being  to  provide  a 


III.  173.  III.  174.    Electric  Light 

Electric  Light  Pendant.  Balance  Pendant. 

water-tight  casing  that  rapidly  follows  sudden  changes 
of  atmospheric  temperature,  so  as  to  prevent  the  collec- 
tion of  moisture  in  the  tubing,  caused  by  condensation. 
The  Kuhlos  and  Stannos  methods  of  wiring  have 
also  recently  been  introduced ;  the  latter  has  been 
used  with  success  and  appears  to  combine  efficiency 
with  durability. 

The  method  consists  of  single  or  stranded  tinned 
copper  wires  covered  with  pure  insulated  and  vulcan- 
ized india-rubber,  which  is  taped  and  then  lapped 
around  closely  with  a  sheet  of  tinned  copper,  the  whole 
being  rendered  homogeneous  by  a  special  process. 


LIGHTING  203 

The  result  is  that  a  light  flexible  conduit  is  obtained 
in  which  the  wires  are  mechanically  protected  and  can 
be  rapidly  and  easily  fixed  alongside  picture-rails, 
architraves,  skirtings  or  other  fixtures  without  being 
unduly  noticeable. 


III.  175.    Electric  Light         III.  176.    Electric  Light  Table 
Newel  Standard.  Lamp. 

Fittings — An  endless  variety  of  fittings  for  the 
incandescent  electric  light  are  now  made  from  the 
simple  flexible  pendant  (111.  173)  to  the  most  costly 
and  elaborate  forms.  The  adjustable  flexible  pendant 
(111.  174)  is  a  convenient  form,  and  is  useful  in  bed 
and  dressing  rooms.  More  elaborate  fittings  are 
shown  in  Ills.  175  and  176,  the  former  being  fixed 


204  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


to  the  newel  of  a  stair  and  the  latter  forming  a  centre 
light  for  a  dining-table. 

Sitting  and  reception  rooms  should  have  a  number 
of  wall  plugs,  as  they  allow  of  lamps  being  moved 
to  different  positions  in  the  room  and  are  useful  in 
decorative  lighting  for  receptions,  also  for  portable 
electric  radiators. 

Lavatories  and  water-closets  may  be  lighted  so  that 
the  lamps  are  automatically  switched  on  and  off  by 
opening  and  shutting  the  doors,  but  the  advantage 
of  this  is  doubtful. 

Special  water-tight  fittings  are  sometimes  used  in 
stables,  as  the  stable  fumes  corrode  the  metal  parts 
of  the  lamp  holders. 

Lamps — An  ordinary  incandescent  carbon  filament 
lamp  will  last  about  a  thousand  hours  and  use  about 
3|-  to  4  watts  per  candle-power  ;  but  many  lamps  of 
higher  efficiency  are  now  made,  and  since  the  intro- 
duction of  metal  filament  lamps  the  whole  question  of 
economy  in  electric  lighting  has  been  revolutionized. 

Tantalum  lamps  have  a  metal  filament  and  un- 
doubtedly effect  a  great  saving  in  current,  while  giving 
an  increased  candle-power.  These  lamps  were  not 
made  for  higher  voltages  than  130,  but  recently  high- 
pressure  ones  have  been  introduced,  thus  obviating 
the  necessity  to  use  them  in  series. 

Osram  lamps  are  similar  but  more  efficient ;  their 
efficiency  is  watts  per  candle-power,  thus  saving 
nearly  70  per  cent  over  carbon  filament  lamps. 
They  can  only  be  used  in  a  downward  position,  as  the 
long  filament  easily  breaks  if  inclined  at  an  angle. 

Metallic  Filament  Lamps  Compared — MeSSrs.  Siemens  seem 

to  be  the  only  firm  who  can  handle  the  refractory 
metal  used  in  the  Tantalum  lamp,  while  there  are 


LIGHTING 


205 


many  lamps  of  the  Osram  type  on  the  market  at  the 
present  time.  The  present  prices  for  Tantalum  and 
Osram  lamps  for  high  voltages  are  3s.  6d.  and  4s.  3d. 
each,  the  efficiency  of  the  two  lamps  being  17  and 
I  '2  watts  per  candle-power  respectively. 

We  are  constantly  testing  lamps  for  clients,  and  at 
the  present  moment  are  rather  inclined  to  favour  the 
Tantalum  lamp,  as,  though  not  quite  so  efficient  as 
the  Osram  type,  it  is  cheaper  and  appears  to  be  less 
fragile.  But  such  frequent  improvements  are  taking 
place  that  one  has  constantly  to  modify  one's  opinion 
upon  testing  the  different  lamps  as  they  are  placed  upon 
the  market. 

We  have  recently  placed  a  contract  with  Messrs. 
Locke  and  Soare,  of  New  Cavendish  Street,  for  an 
Osram  type  of  lamp  at  3s.  3d.,  and  they  guarantee  to 
replace  every  lamp  that  becomes  defective  within  three 
months  of  its  installation. 

A  transformer  such  as  has  been  already  described  on 
page  200  can  be  fitted  to  an  installation  for  the  pur- 
pose of  reducing  the  pressure  of  the  cur- 
rent supplied  by  the  company  to  meet 
the  lower  voltage  of  the  earlier  types  of 
metal-filament  lamps,  which  are  cheaper 
than  those  for  the  high  voltage.  There 
are  also  many  forms  of  the  mercury 
vapour  lamps  which  give  a  soft  bluish- 
green  light  with  very  high  efficiency. 

Arc  Lamps — The  arc  lamp  (111.  177)  is 
useful  for  external  lighting  such  as  en- 
trance drives,  stables  and  yards.  The 
illumination  is  caused  by  the  current 
leaping  the  space  between  two  carbons 
which  automatically  approach  each  other 


III.  177. 
Arc  Lamp. 


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as  they  are  consumed,  and  these  have  to  be  renewed 
about  every  hundred  hours.  The  lamps  are  made 
from  five  hundred  candle-power  upwards,  and  their 
illuminating  power  is  greater,  for  the  amount  of  current 
consumed,  than  the  incandescent  lamp. 

Cost  of  Electric  Installation — The  cost  of  running  the  wires, 
as  described  previously,  must  of  course  depend  upon 
the  circumstances  of  each  case,  but  for  anything  over 
fifty  lights  the  prices  for  wiring  from  the  company's 
main,  to  cover  everything  except  the  fittings,  will  vary 
from  about  los.  to  30s.  per  light. 

The  cost  of  an  independent  installation  and  plant 
such  as  may  be  required  in  a  country  house  also 
varies  considerably  from  £2  to  ^5  per  light.  When 
from  two  to  three  hundred  lamps  are  required,  the 
cost  of  supply  ought  not  to  exceed  ^100  per  annum 
if  the  dynamo  is  worked  by  a  steam  or  oil  engine,  for 
the  entire  cost  of  the  necessary  attendant  should  not 
be  included  with  that  of  the  engine,  as  the  latter 
should  not  occupy  more  than  half  of  his  time. 

Cost  of  Gas  and  Electricity — The  COSt  of  electricity  at  6d. 

per  unit  is  roughly  calculated  to  be  equivalent  to  gas 
at  slightly  over  4s.  per  1000  ft.,  assuming  4  watts  per 
candle-power.  A  rough  calculation  is  that  a  i6-c.p. 
carbon  lamp  consumes  i  unit  in  16  hours,  and  30 
8-c.p.  lamps  will  absorb  the  same  energy  in  i  hour  or 
I  8-c.p.  in  30  hours. 

Electric  light  is  more  economical  than  gas  owing  to 
the  facility  of  switching  it  on  and  off,  and  to  the  fact 
that  books,  pictures,  curtains,  and  internal  decorations 
are  better  preserved  ;  besides  which  the  purer  atmo- 
sphere maintained  is  beneficial  to  health. 

In  addition  to  the  fixed  price  per  unit,  there  is  a 
method  of  payment  called  The  Maximum  Demand 


LIGHTING 


207 


Indicator  System  or  the  Brighton  method.  A 
small  indicator  fixed  near  the  meter  shows  the  amount 
of  energy  consumed  at  any  one  time,  and  such  amount 
multiplied  by  182  hours  (in  the  case  of  the  borough  of 
Hampstead)  is  charged  at  6d.  per  unit,  and  thereafter 
units  are  charged  at  i|^d.  This  borough  gives  con- 
sumers the  option  of  adopting  the  above,  and  only 
charges  i|-d.  per  unit  for  the  two  summer  quarters.  The 
alternative  method  is  a  fiat  rate  of  4d.  per  unit ;  this 
means  that  all  current  consumed  is  chargeable  at  such 
price. 

Most  of  the  London  companies  supply  electricity 
for  heating  and  power  purposes  at  about  id.  per 
unit. 


CHAPTER  XV 


VENTILATION 

General  Principles — Composition  of  Air — Quantity  of  Air  Required 
(Inlets — Outlets) — Natural  Ventilation — Mechanical  Ventilation  (Plenum, 
Vacuum,  Glover-Lyon) — The  Ventilation  of  a  Dwelling-house  (Hall  and 
Stairs,  Kitchens,  Bedrooms,  Billiard-rooms). 

GENERAL  Principles — Everybody  knows  that  a 
supply  of  fresh  air  is  essential  for  all  human 
beings ;  we  need  not,  therefore,  discuss  the 
necessity  for  ventilation.  Lack  of  fresh  air  produces 
nausea,  headaches,  sleepiness  and  loss  of  appetite  ; 
and  most  of  these  conditions  are  realized  after  havino- 
been  in  a  badly  ventilated  apartment  for  some  time. 

Pure  heated  air  is  not  objectionable  in  itself,  al- 
though people  are  in  the  habit  of  referring  to  a  room 
as  being  too  hot,  whereas  it  is  as  a  rule  badly  ven- 
tilated, the  excess  of  carbonic  acid  rendering  the  air 
impure. 

A  general  explanation  of  the  movement  of  air  will 
enable  the  reader  to  understand  the  necessary  require- 
ments of  any  ventilation  scheme.  The  wind  and  the 
difference  in  temperature  between  the  external  and 
internal  air  are  the  forces  which  govern  the  velocity 
with  which  air  moves  in  a  building.  The  wind  is  a 
strong  factor,  but,  as  it  acts  principally  in  cold  weather 
and  is  moreover  such  an  uncertain  agent,  it  is  not 
practicable  to  make  any  ventilation  scheme  dependent 
upon  it. 

208 


VENTILATION 


209 


Natural  principles  of  great  importance  are  that  the 
specific  gravity  of  cold  air  is  greater  than  that  of  hot 
air  of  equal  purity,  and  that  air  when  heated  expands 
and  rises. 

Air  expands  ^^jj  of  its  bulk  for  every  degree  Fah- 
renheit to  which  it  is  heated,  so  that  if  the  air  in 
a  room  be  heated  to  50  degrees  above  the  external 
air  it  will  increase  one-tenth  in  bulk,  and  therefore  be 
lighter  in  proportion. 

Composition  of  Air — Air  consists  mainly  of  oxygen 
and  nitrogen  in  varying  proportions,  and  in  addition 
there  are  small  proportions  of  ozone,  argon,  etc. 
According  to  Dr.  Angus  Smith,  the  purest  sea  or 
mountain  air  contains  as  much  as  20*999  volumes  per 
cent  of  oxygen,  but  the  worst  air  found  in  a  mine 
contained  only  18*27  P^''  cent. 

Ozone,  which  is  beneficial  to  the  health,  is  a  con- 
densed form  of  oxygen  principally  found  near  the  sea 
and  open  country  and  is  rapidly  destroyed  by  smoke 
and  other  impurities. 

Carbonic  Acid  (CO2)  is  generally  taken  as  the 
gauge  of  impurity  in  air.  It  emanates  from  under- 
ground sources  in  the  form  of  gas,  and  is  increased 
by  combustion  and  fog,  but  is  diminished  by  vegeta- 
tion, rain  and  high  winds. 

Carbonic  Oxide  (CO)  is  another  impurity  caused  by 
the  imperfect  combustion  of  carbon  and  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  and  is  found  in  sewers  and  near  excavations 
and  marshes. 

Marsh  Gas  is  found  in  the  atmosphere  adjacent  to 
marshes  and  also  in  coal  mines,  where  the  proportion 
may  be  sufficient  to  destroy  life  by  the  exclusion  of 
oxygen. 

Ammonia   Compounds,   derived   principally  from 
14 


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putrefaction  and  animal  exhalations,  are  injurious 
owing  to  the  impurities  which  accompany  them. 

Suspended  matter  in  the  air,  such  as  dust  formed  of 
mineral  particles,  or  organic  matter  of  animal  or  vege- 
table origin,  form  some  of  the  principal  impurities  found 
in  town  air. 

The  action  of  breathing  also  helps  to  render  the  air 
impure,  for  it  abstracts  oxygen  and  increases  carbonic 
acid,  besides  which  the  skin  itself  gives  off  impure 
exhalations. 

Coal  gas  causes  much  impurity  in  the  air,  for  its 
products  of  combustion  are  carbonic  acid,  carbonic 
oxide,  ammonia,  and  sulphur  compounds  ;  and  it  is 
estimated  that  each  cubic  foot  of  gas  burnt  per  hour 
vitiates  as  much  air  as  one  human  being  by  respiration. 
An  oil  lamp  affects  even  more  the  purity  of  the  air  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  light  obtained. 

Quantity  of  Air  Required — Respirated  air  is  found 
to  contain  about  4*5  per  cent  of  carbonic  acid,  and  is 
thus  deprived  of  that  amount  of  oxygen.  An  average 
adult  gives  off  about  six  cubic  feet  of  carbonic  acid  per 
hour,  and  as  1000  cubic  feet  of  air  under  average 
circumstances  contain  '4  cubic  feet  of  carbonic  acid, 
an  addition  of  '2  cubic  feet  will  reach  the  limit  of  the 
standard  of  purity,  which  is  '6  as  laid  down  by  the  late 
Sir  Douolas  Galton.  An  adult  will  therefore  render 
3000  cubic  feet  of  air  impure  in  one  hour,  because  he 
will  add  '2  cubic  feet  to  each  thousand.  It  follows 
that  a  system  of  ventilation  is  required  which  shall 
give  each  person  at  least  3000  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air 
per  hour ;  a  standard,  however,  which,  in  practice, 
seems  to  be  seldom  adhered  to.  It  is  asserted  that  no 
room  can  be  considered  even  tolerably  ventilated 
unless  at  least  1000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  occupant  are 


VENTILATION 


21  I 


renewed  every  hour  ;  consequently  a  room  20  ft.  by 
15  ft.  by  10  ft.  high,  which  contains  3000  cubic  feet 
and  is  occupied  by  three  people,  requires  the  air  to  be 
changed  every  hour,  but  if  occupied  by  fifteen  people 
the  air  would  require  to  be  changed  five  times  an 
hour. 

Rooms  are  rarely  so  well  built  that  air  cannot  enter 
freely  from  the  loosely-fitted  doors  and  windows  of 
ordinary  houses.  The  air  thus  accidentally  admitted 
helps  to  ventilate  the  room  even  in  the  absence  of  any 
definite  system. 

In  order  to  avoid  draughts  it  is  usually  assumed  in 
a  country  like  England  that  the  air  of  a  compartment 
should  not  be  changed  more  often  than  three  times  an 
hour,  unless  the  incoming  air  is  warmed. 

The  supply  of  fresh  air  should  not  move  with  a 
greater  velocity  than  two  or  three  feet  per  second, 
otherwise  draughts  are  felt.  Consequently  inlets  and 
outlets  should  be  designed  in  such  a  way  that  the 
movement  of  the  air  does  not  exceed  this  rate. 

The  following  table  from  Hood  gives  the  quantity 
of  air  which  should  be  provided  per  person  per  hour 
for  a  room  occupied  to  its  maximum  capacity,  but 
other  authorities  differ  considerably  from  him  : — 

Cubic  Feet  per  Person 
PER  Hour. 

Ordinary  living-room  ...        ...        ...  1200 

Sleeping-apartments    ...        ...        ...  900 

Ballrooms         ...        ...        ...        ...  2100 — 2400 

Dining-halls      ...        ...        ...        ...  1200 — 1500 

We  refrain  from  giving  formulae  here,  but  examples 
for  different  buildings  are  fully  worked  out  in  Archi- 
tectural Hygiene  (3rd  Edition). 

Inlets — Authorities  differ  as  to  whether  the  inlets  in  an 


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K-  WALL 

III.  178. 
Sheringham  Ventilator. 


ordinary  room  should  be  at  the  top  or  bottom  of  the 
wall,  but  the  best  position,  in  our  opinion,  is  about  six 
feet  from  the  floor  level,  on  the  same  side  of  the  room 
as  the  fireplace  (see  p.  177).    They  should  be  short 

and  accessible,  otherwise  they 
collect  dirt  and  vermin,  and 
should  be  placed  so  as  to 
diffuse  the  air  in  such  a  way 
that  all  parts  of  the  room  may 
be  air-cleansed. 

A  Sheringham  inlet  venti- 
lator (111.  178)  is  provided  with 
flaps  fallincr  inwards  and  with 
cheeks  so  that  the  air  enterinor 
is  given  an  upward  cant  and  is  then  diffused. 

A  Tobin  tube  inlet  (111.  179)  is  a  short  upright 
shaft  formed  of  i^-inch  boarding,  lined  with  zinc  or 
made  entirely  of  metal,  as  shown 
in  the  illustration.  It  should  be 
provided  with  a  butterfly  valve  to 
regulate  the  amount  of  air  admitted, 
and  the  top  may  be  covered  with 
perforated  zinc. 

If  a  ventilation  scheme  is  to  be 
effective,  air  must  be  warmed  before 
entering  the  buildinor  for  at  least 
six  months  in  the  year,  otherwise 
in  cold  weather  people  will  close 
the  inlets  because  of  the  draught  brought  about  by 
the  introduction  of  the  cold  air.  This  warming  may 
be  effected  by  means  of  radiators  (see  111.  159)  which 
are  fixed  against  the  wall,  generally  under  the  window 
sill.  They  may  with  advantage  be  placed  in  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall  itself,  with  inlets  into  the  room. 


III.  179. 
Tobin  Tube. 


VENTILATION  213 

It  has  been  laid  down  that  the  inlets  should  have  a 
sectional  area  of  twenty-four  square  inches  for  each 
person,  so  that  one  square  foot  (i.e.  144  square  inches) 
is  required  for  six  persons,  and  six  air-bricks  of  the 
effective  area  of  twenty-four  square  inches  each  would 
be  sufficient.  Such  an  allowance  is  seldom  obtained 
in  practice.  Ordinary  rooms  provided  with  a  good 
fireplace,  according  to  Hood,  may  have  inlets  of  the 
followinor  area  takino^  into  account  the  size  of  the 
room,  the  number  of  occupants  and  gas  burners  : — 


Size  of  Room. 

Number  of 
Occupants. 

Number  of 
Gas  Burners. 

Net  Size  of 
Ventilator. 

ft.  ft. 

in.  in. 

10   by  10 

2    or  3 

2 

9    by  3 

16     „  12 

3     5,  4 

3 

9       n  6 

20     „  16 

4     „  5 

4 

9      n  9 

Where  sash  windows  are  used  they  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  deep  bead  at  the  back  of  the  sill  (as 
shown  in  111.  22),  as  this  allows  the  lower  sash  to  be 
slightly  raised  so  that  air  can  be  admitted  between  the 
meeting  rails  in  a  vertical  direction,  as  shown  by  the 
arrow  on  the  illustration. 

Outlets — The  position  of  the  outlet  depends  upon  the 
inlet,  but  generally  speaking  they  should  be  as  far  as 
possible  apart.  The  natural  outlet  in  an  ordinary 
room  is  the  fireplace,  where  there  is  always  an  up- 
current  drawing  the  air  out  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
room  at  a  computed  velocity  of  from  four  to  five  feet 
per  second. 

This  factor  in  domestic  ventilation  gives  a  natural 
outlet  in  every  room,  and  induces  many  authorities  to 
suggest  downward  ventilation,  in  which  the  foul  air 
is  drawn  out  through  the  fireplace  opening  in  pre- 


214 


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^  Kys\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\S\\\\\\  V  V  ^,s  V  V  V  V 


/I 


s'\'\'s'\'\\\\\\S\\V\V\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\-v^ 

III.  i8o.    Air  Currents  in  RoOxM. 


ference  to  having  a  special  outlet  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  room. 

The  air  in  a  room  with  closed  doors  and  windows 
is  in  such  cases  drawn  along  the  floor  towards  the  fire, 
a  part  helping  the  process  of  combustion  and  going 
up  the  chimney,  and  a  part  in  consequence  of  its 

warmth  and  impetus  flow- 
ing towards  the  ceilinor,  as 
\  ^  shown  in  111.  i8o.  This 
latter  cools  in  traversing 
the  ceiling,  descends,  and 
is  again  carried  towards 
the  fireplace.  A  good  place 
to  introduce  air  is  in  the 
chimney  breast  wall  above  the  mantelpiece,  as  shown 
in  111.  149,  as  this  results  in  slightly  warming  the  air 
when  the  fire  is  alight. 

The  amount  of  air  that  an  open  fire  requires  is 
considerable,  and  where  no  special  supply  is  provided 
cold  air  is  drawn  in  to  supply  this  need  through  cracks 
of  doors  and  windows  to  such  an  extent  that  drauohts 
are  frequently  the  result,  although  the 
modern  slow  combustion  fireplace  obviates 
this  nuisance  to  a  large  extent. 

If  it  is  desired  to  extract  air  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  room  it  is  better  to  have 
a  separate  foul-air  flue,  which  costs  little 
when  constructed  in  a  new  building.  Ven- 
tilating flue  pipes  (as  shown  in  111.  181)  are 
sometimes  used  in  conjunction  with  smoke- 
flue  pipes,  and  being  warmed  by  the  smoke 
flue  cause  an  upward  current  in  the  air  flue. 

Natural  Ventilation— Natural  ventilation  is  gener- 
ally in  use  for  ordinary  houses,  and  consists  in  the 


III.  181. 

Doulton's 
Ventilating 
Flue. 


VENTILATION  215 

removal  of  foul  and  the  admittance  of  fresh  air  by 
natural  means,  such  as  by  doors,  windows  and  fire- 
places. 

Nature  assists  in  ventilation,  as  explained  on 
page  209,  because  air,  when  heated,  expands  and 
rises,  and  heated  air  given  off  by  the  body  can  be 
removed  from  the  apartment  by  flues  if  fresh  air  is 
admitted  to  take  its  place.  Thus  if  air  is  introduced 
at  the  lower  part  of  the  room  and  an  extract  flue  for 
heated  air  formed  in  the  upper  part,  a  natural  means 
of  ventilation  is  provided,  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  this 
process  may  be  reversed  in  ordinary  rooms,  as  the 
fireplace  opening  forms  the  outlet,  as  before  men- 
tioned and  shown  in  111.  180. 

Mechanical  Ventilation — Mechanical  ventilation  is 
dependent  on  means  of  propulsion  and  extraction  by 
mechanism,  and  is  either  of  the  plenum  or  vacuum 
systems. 

Plenum  System — The  plenum  system  is  effected  by 
propulsion  of  fresh  air  into  the  apartment  by  means 
of  fans  or  air  pumps,  and  the  foul  air  is  thus  forced 
out. 

We  think  that  the  death-blow  to  this  system  has 
been  the  general  condemnation  of  the  ventilation  of 
the  Central  Criminal  Courts. 

Vacuum  System — The  vacuum  system  consists  in  pro- 
ducing strong  up-currents  in  special  extract  shafts 
either  by  means  of  gas  jets,  hot-water  pipes,  steam 
coils  or  fans,  which  cause  the  foul  air  to  be  drawn  out 
of  the  room  and  fresh  air  enters  to  take  its  place. 

The  great  difficulty  in  the  application  of  mechanical 
ventilation  is  the  cost  and  the  liability  of  the  system 
to  get  out  of  order,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  pos- 
sesses the  great  advantage  of  constancy  under  change 


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of  atmosphere,  and  is  completely  under  control  as  to 
the  supply  and  quality  of  fresh  air  required. 

Glover- Lyon  System — Dr.  Thomas  Glover-Lyon,  M.A., 
M.D.,  is  responsible  for  a  good  system  of  draughtless 
ventilation,  and  when  electricity  can  be  obtained  at  a 
reasonable  cost  we  have  no  hesitation,  from  our  own 
practical  experience,  in  thoroughly  recommending  its 
adoption  for  billiard  and  smoking  rooms  and  all  apart- 
ments which  are  difficult  to  supply  with  fresh  air  in 
the  ordinary  way. 

Air  heated  to  the  required  temperature  is  forced, 
by  electric  fans,  into  the  room  through  a  large  number 
of  specially  graduated  apertures,  and  is  extracted  in  a 
corresponding  manner.  The  result  is  a  slow  sweep 
of  air  throughout  the  apartment  without  any  draught ; 
the  even  manner  in  which  the  air  is  sprayed,  as  it 
were,  into  the  room  gives  more  efficiency  than  by 
any  other  method  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  The 
system  does  away  with  the  costly  installation  of  base- 
ment boilers  and  hot-water  pipes,  and  can  be  applied 
separately  to  any  apartment,  the  flow  of  air  being- 
increased  or  decreased  at  will. 

The  Glover- Lyon  system,  moreover,  is  not  inter- 
fered with  by  the  ordinary  fire,  which  may  still  be  used 
to  give  a  cheerful  appearance.  The  system  is  not  dis- 
organized by  the  opening  and  shutting  of  windows  as 
in  other  systems. 

The  Ventilation  of  a  Dwelling-house — The  scheme  of 
ventilation  employed  depends  upon  the  amount  that 
can  be  expended,  and  indeed  in  many  houses  no 
special  provision  is  made,  but  it  is  well  to  indicate 
a  few  general  rules  which  should  be  adhered  to. 

Hall  and  Stairs — The  hall  and  Staircase  must  be  properly 
warmed  and  ventilated,  if  draughts  are  to  be  avoided; 


VENTILATION  217 

and  the  best  way  to  effect  this  is  by  means  of  hot-water 
or  electric  radiators  placed  in  front  of  inlets,  so  that 
the  incoming  air  may  be  warmed  ;  this  tends  to  keep 
the  hall  and  staircase  at  a  proper  temperature. 
Warmed  air  being  thus  introduced  into  this  part  of 
the  house,  fanliohts  can  be  arranged  above  the  doors 
of  the  various  rooms,  and  a  continual  stream  of 
warmed  fresh  air  is  thus  supplied  to  the  sitting-rooms 
and  bedrooms  instead  of  the  cold  draughts  which 
otherwise  occur. 

The  hall  and  staircase  should  have  a  ventilating 
lantern  light  in  the  upper  part  of  the  house  heated  if 
possible  with  hot-water  pipes  to  create  an  up-current 
and  prevent  a  down-draught. 

Kitchens,  etc. — The  kitchen  offices,  cellars,  lava- 
tories, and  W.C.  s  should  be  disconnected  by  means 
of  cross  ventilation  as  much  as  possible  from  the  other 
portions  of  the  house.  The  lavatories  and  water- 
closets  should  in  an  ideal  house  be  placed  in  a 
separate  annexe  with  cross  ventilation  lobbies  as  is 
usual  in  hospitals,  but  in  practice  this  may  be 
effected  by  placing  the  lavatory  and  W.C.  with  a  dis- 
connecting lobby  between,  as  mentioned  in  chapter  iii., 
page  51. 

The  water-closet  itself  should  have  louvres,  or  a 
grating  in  the  lower  part  of  the  door  connecting  it 
with  the  lavatory,  so  that  a  current  of  air  is  continu- 
ally passing  through  the  former  to  the  W.C.  window, 
which  should  always  be  kept  open. 

Cellars  should  also  be  cut  off  from  the  living  por- 
tion in  order  that  the  cold  air  and  dust  from  coal 
cellars  and  underground  passages  may  not  be  drawn 
up  by  the  warmed  air  into  the  house. 

Bedrooms — Bedrooms  can  be  kept  reasonably  warm 


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in  winter  by  means  of  radiators  in  the  hall  passages 
and  staircase,  and  in  exposed  situations  they  may  be 
placed  in  the  rooms  themselves.  All  such  rooms 
should,  of  course,  have  a  fireplace,  and  the  inlet  to  the 
flue  should  be  kept  open,  so  that  a  current  of  air  may 
always  be  travelling  up  the  chimney.  The  old  form 
of  grate  with  a  register  which  can  be  shut  down 
should  be  avoided,  for  some  people  close  it  and  leave 
the  bedroom  without  any  ventilation,  causing  such  an 
apartment  to  be  a  fruitful  source  of  headaches  in  the 
mornino-. 

People  who  desire  to  be  healthy  have  their  windows 
open  at  least  an  inch  or  so  all  the  year  round,  and  in 
addition  a  ventilatine  oratinof  over  the  door  should  be 
provided,  so  that  the  warm  fresh  air  which  has  been 
admitted  to  the  hall  can  pass  through  the  bedroom  to 
the  fireplace  as  before  mentioned. 

Billiard-rooms — A  billiard- room  is  often  difficult  to 
ventilate  because  of  the  large  glass  lantern  necessary 
for  lighting  the  table,  the  amount  of  smoking  indulged 
in  and  the  quantity  of  gas  consumed,  and  the  first 
thing  which  should  be  done,  wherever  possible,  is  to 
install  electricity.  Fresh  air  should,  of  course,  be 
heated  by  hot-water  or  electric  radiators,  and  a  down- 
draught  from  the  cold  air  around  the  lantern  may 
be  prevented  by  a  lay-light  (i.e.  a  horizontal  glass 
ceiling)  placed  below  it,  and  the  space  between  the 
two  lights  may  be  warmed  by  hot-water  pipes  so  as  to 
cause  an  up-current,  the  vitiated  air  being  drawn  out 
through  the  roof  by  an  extract  ventilator.  If  hot- 
water  heating  is  not  desired  a  ventilating  grate  may 
be  used,  the  lay-light  made  air-tight,  several  inlet 
ventilators  placed  in  the  walls  and  the  extract  obtained 
by  a  special  foul-air  flue  in  the  chimney  breast,  with 


VENTILATION 


219 


possibly  some  mechanical  arrangement  to  accelerate 
the  current. 

If  electric  current  can  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable 
price,  the  Glover-Lyon  system  before  described  should 
most  certainly  be  employed. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


THE  DECORATION  AND  FURNISHING 
OF  THE  HOUSE 

General  Principles — The  Hall  and  Staircase — The  Dining-room — The 
Drawing-room — The  Library  or  Study — The  Breakfast  or  Morning- 
room  -Bathrooms  and  W.C.'s — Bedrooms — The  Kitchen  and  Scullery 
—  Pantry. 

GENERAL  Principles — The  keynote  of  all  decora- 
tion and  furnishing  should  be  simplicity,  but  at 
the  same  time  we  must  not  be  led  away  into 
the  affectation  of  simplicity  seen  in  so  much  modern 
work. 

Tradition  in  art  should  be  adhered  to,  but  antiquity 
should  not  be  worshipped  for  its  own  sake,  as  it  is 
certain  that  some  designs  were  equally  as  bad  in  the 
past  as  in  the  present  day,  but  owing  to  defects  in 
conception  and  construction  a  considerable  amount  of 
such  work  has  disappeared. 

If  a  well-designed  piece  of  furniturehas  been  mellowed 
by  time,  it  has  an  additional  attraction  which  makes  it 
more  beautiful  and  causes  it  to  appeal  to  a  wider  class 
than  that  of  the  technical  critic  who  studies  merely 
the  actual  design  and  construction  irrespective  of  its 
antiquity.  We  should  study  the  art  of  the  past,  not 
for  the  purpose  of  slavishly  copying  it,  but  rather  for 
gathering  inspiration  which  will  enable  us  to  conceive 
something  that  may  in  its  turn  be  worthy  to  hand 
down  to  future  generations. 


220 


DECORATION  AND  FURNISHING  221 


There  is  much  to  be  learned  in  decoration  and  furnish- 
ing from  the  Japanese,  whose  marvellous  and  intuitive 
skill  is  evinced,  not  only  in  their  articles  of  virtu^  but 
also  in  the  decorative  treatment  of  their  homes.  One 
is  perhaps  most  impressed  when  visiting  a  Japanese 
home  by  the  extraordinary  paucity  (as  an  American 
friend  expressed  it)  of  their  decorations,  for  go  down, 
or  warehouse,  is  attached  to  all  houses  of  any  size, 
and  in  this  are  stored  practically  the  whole  of  the 
ofoods  beloncrinor  to  the  owner  of  the  house.  One 
ornament  only  is  displayed  prominently  on  a  stool  in 
each  room,  so  that  everyone  can  examine  it  at  leisure, 
and,  when  the  owner  is  satiated  with  it,  it  goes  back  to 
the  godown  and  another  takes  its  place.  Each  work 
of  art  is  thus  unhampered  by  the  distraction  of  adjoin- 
ing works  and  receives  in  its  turn  due  criticism  and 
appreciation. 

The  ostentatious  gimcrackery  of  much  modern 
furniture  is  strongly  to  be  condemned,  although  there 
are  sio^ns  of  a  return  to  o^ood  traditional  forms  and 
satisfactory  constructive  outlines,  as  referred  to  in 
chapter  i.,  pages  28  and  35. 

Antimacassars  and  all  such  dirt  collectors  should  be 
avoided,  as  they  are  injurious  to  health,  and  curtains 
should  not  be  hung  in  flounces,  which  make  them  a 
ready  receptacle  for  dust,  but  should  fall  loosely  from 
light  metal  rods  and  be  easily  removable  for  cleaning. 

The  chief  ideas  which  should  govern  the  furnishino- 
and  decoration  of  the  principal  rooms  in  an  English- 
man's house  we  deal  with  somewhat  cursorily,  for 
tastes  differ  and  many  have  ideas  of  their  own,  but  for 
those  in  doubt  the  general  principles  laid  down  will, 
we  hope,  be  of  some  use. 

The  house,  it  should  be  remembered,  is  built  for  a 


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dwelling,  not  for  the  reception  of  visitors  ;  and  no 
room  should  be  considered  too  well  furnished  for 
daily  use. 

The  various  apartments  in  a  house  are  now  briefly 
referred  to  with  suggestions  which  may  be  helpful  in 
giving  some  idea  as  to  the  general  decorative  treat- 
ment required  for  each  room. 

Chapter  iii.  has  already  dealt  with  the  aspect  and 
chapter  vi.  with  the  treatment  of  the  floors,  walls, 
doors,  windows,  fireplaces  and  ceilings. 

The  Hall  and  Staircase — The  hall  should  have  a 
cheerful  and  inviting  appearance  to  the  visitor 
and  should  leave  the  parting  guest  full  of  pleasant 
recollections. 

The  floor  may  be  of  polished  wood  blocks  or 
parquet  flooring  with  a  rug  or  two  in  the  centre,  or  if 
not  considered  too  cold  in  appearance  it  may  be  of 
mosaic  treated  in  a  warm  colour  with  a  plain  key- 
pattern  border. 

The  walls  may  be  hung  with  a  washable  leather 
paper,  panelled  as  seen  in  111.  229,  or  painted.  A 
deep  frieze  may  be  provided,  treated  in  a  lighter  key, 
with  a  picture-rail  or  moulding  in  line  with  the  top  of 
the  doors  and  so  formed  as  to  hold  any  pieces  of  old 
china  which  may  have  been  collected.  A  combined 
picture-rail  and  china-rest  is  indicated  in  Ills.  196, 
205,  236,  237,  238,  239,  245,  292  and  313.  The 
pictures  may  consist  of  prints  or  engravings,  either  of 
which  are  perhaps  better  than  oil  paintings  in  a  small 
hall.  They  should  be  few  in  number  but  good  of 
their  kind. 

The  staircase  may  have  a  dado  of  some  material 
perhaps  of  darker  colour  than  the  walls  and  well 
varnished,  so  that  it  can  be  easily  washed.    The  fire- 


DECORATION  AND  FURNISHING  223 

place  is  an  important  feature  in  the  hall,  and  much 
will  depend  upon  its  treatment,  which  should  be 
simple  and  substantial.  A  semicircular  arch  of  bull- 
nosed,  salt-glazed  bricks  makes  a  very  good  opening, 
and  when  filled  in  with  a  dog-grate  of  modern  type  is 
especially  adapted  to  give  a  cosy  appearance. 

The  ceilinor  can  be  treated  with  ribs  in  oreometrical 
patterns,  or  the  beams  of  the  floor  over  may  be  left 
visible,  as  shown  in  Ills.  229  and  312. 

TYiQ  chairs  should  be  strong  yet  comfortable,  and 
an  oak  chest  or  two  to  contain  books  or  papers  is 
useful. 

The  cheap  varieties  of  stained  glass  which  have 
been  used  of  late  years  ad  7taiisearn  in  the  hall  of 
speculative  builders'  houses  should  be  avoided,  and 
glass,  either  plain,  ribbed  or  frosted,  set  in  wide  lead 
cames,  may  be  used  for  the  windows,  unless  good 
stained  glass  can  be  afforded. 

The  Dining-room  —  This  should  have  a  warm  yet 
subdued  treatment  in  order  to  give  it  a  quiet  and 
cosy  appearance.  The  walls  should  be  divided  only 
into  two,  as  it  is  seldom  possible  in  small  houses 
to  have  a  dado  as  well  as  a  frieze.  The  lower  part 
may  have  a  dado  of  wainscot  oak,  as  in  Ills.  245,  292, 
or  of  stamped  leather,  and  a  moulded  dado-rail  may 
be  formed  to  act  as  a  chair-back  and  prevent  the 
chairs  rubbing  against  the  wall  surface.  Pompeian 
red  is  a  good  colour  for  the  dining-room,  but  a 
subdued  grey-green  is  preferred  by  many  as  a  better 
background  for  pictures.  There  should  always  be  a 
moulded  picture-rail  from  which  the  pictures  can  be 
hung  by  means  of  hooks  (111.  313),  for  nothing  looks 
more  unfurnished  and  untidy  than  nails  knocked 
into   walls   at   different   heights   to  support  them. 


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Pictures,  moreover,  can  be  easily  taken  down  and 
cleaned  and  rehung  if  there  is  a  picture-rail  on  the 
same  level  with,  or  not  much  higher  than,  the  top 
of  the  door  architraves.  The  picture-rail  may  be 
combined  with  the  cornice  where  there  is  no  frieze 
or  in  cases  where  a  dado  is  provided,  and  the  panel 
moulding  may  be  utilized  for  this  purpose  where 
panelled  walls  are  used. 

The  woodwork  may  be  painted  and  varnished  with 
a  floor  border  in  a  darker  colour,  and  a  Turkey  carpet 
covering  the  centre  of  the  room  has  a  pleasant  effect. 
The  table  and  chairs  should  be  simple  and  harmonize 
with  the  style  of  the  room,  as  in  Ills.  273,  308,  317, 
3^9)  327  and  328.  In  furnishing  the  dining-room 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  have  the  table  too  large, 
and  thus  leave  only  a  narrow  passage  round  the  room 
and  a  cramped  space  by  the  fireplace,  which  will 
make  waiting  at  table  a  difficult  operation. 

The  ceiling  can  either  be  plain  or  treated  in  ribs 
of  a  geometrical  pattern,  or  with  the  beams  showing, 
as  in  Ills.  230  and  307. 

The  Drawing-room — This  room,  which  also  usually 
serves  as  a  music-room,  should  usually  be  treated  in  a 
lighter  key  than  the  dining-room,  and  the  walls  may 
be  divided  into  two  by  a  deep  frieze,  possibly  treated 
with  figure-work  of  a  lighter  colour  ;  but  in  larger 
rooms  the  walls  may  have  a  triple  division,  as  shown 
in  111.  194. 

The  moulded  picture-rail  at  the  bottom  of  the  frieze 
should  be  grooved,  as  already  described,  to  carry 
china.  The  rest  of  the  wall  may  be  treated  in  a  gold, 
a  peacock-blue  or  grey-green  colour  extending  to  the 
skirting,  or  may  be  panelled  as  in  Ills.  190,  200  and 
288. 


DECORATION  AND  FURNISHING  225 

A  chair-rail  and  dado  may  be  dispensed  with  be- 
cause the  chairs  in  this  room  are  usually  arranged 
about  the  room  in  twos  and  threes  for  conversational 
purposes,  and  cabinets,  small  tables  and  bookcases 
may  be  placed  against  the  walls. 

Water-colour  drawings  are  especially  suitable,  for 
they  go  well  with  the  lighter  treatment  of  this  room. 
The  woodwork  should  harmonize  with  the  walls  and 
ceilings,  and  may  either  be  painted  a  cream-white  with 
a  finishing  coat  of  eggshell  enamel  or,  if  it  can  be 
afforded,  polished  mahogany  doors  surrounded  by 
architraves  painted  white  are  effective. 

Ceilings  are  as  a  rule  best  finished  in  white  with 
moulded  cornice  and  decorative  bands,  as  in  111. 
236. 

Drawing-room  furniture  often  consists  of  a  collec- 
tion of  chairs  and  bric-a-brac  of  all  styles  brought 
together  in  a  happy-go-lucky  fashion,  without  any 
attempt  at  a  homogeneous  idea  ;  but  this  suggestion 
of  a  furniture  dealer's  shop  should  be  avoided. 

Easy-chairs  should  not  be  much  more  than  a  foot 
in  height,  and  may  be  upholstered  in  a  simple 
texture  in  harmony  with  the  general  scheme  of  decora- 
tion. The  primary  object  for  which  a  chair  is  made 
should  not  be  forgotten,  and  gimcrack  constructions 
which,  under  the  name  of  "Art,"  are  foisted  on  the 
unwary  customer  only  to  give  way  under  a  person 
of  more  than  usual  weight  should  be  avoided. 

The  Library  or  Study — The  library  should  be  treated  in 
a  manner  somewhat  similar  to  the  dininof-room  and 
should  have  a  subdued  and  cosy  appearance.  The 
tops  of  the  bookcases,  which  should  have  glass  fronts 
to  prevent  dust  settling  on  the  books,  should  not  be 
more  than  five  or  six  feet  from  the  ground,  so  that 
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books  may  be  easily  reached,  the  top  beuig  used 
for  casts  or  statuettes,  etc.  The  library  window  sills 
may  start  from  the  top  of  these  bookcases  so  as 
to  exclude  the  outer  world,  and  give  the  room  the 
secluded  character  which  conduces  to  study.  One 
window,  however,  should  be  low  enough  to  enable 
one  to  see  out  when  seated,  as  this  gives  the  room 
a  cheerful  appearance. 

The  Breakfast  or  Morning-room — Such  should,  of  COUrse,  be 

sunny  and  cheerful  in  character,  and  a  light-coloured 
paper  or  distemper  is  suitable  for  the  walls.  The 
floor  boards  may  be  stained  round  the  borders  and 
a  bright  central  carpet  used.  A  moulded  picture-rail 
and  deep  frieze  are  appropriate,  and  the  latter  treated  in 
figure  subjects  on  a  light  ground  looks  well. 

The  billiard-room  has  already  been  referred  to  in 
chapter  iii.,  page  50,  and  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  in 
regard  to  decoration  and  furnishing  the  green  cloth 
must  be  primarily  considered. 

Bathrooms  and  w.c.'s — Bathroom  and  W.C.  floors  and 
walls  should  be  formed  of  impervious  materials,  as 
mentioned  in  chapter  vi.,  pages  91  and  94. 

Tiles  make  a  clean,  suitable  and  lasting  wall  sur- 
face, as  they  can  be  washed  down  from  time  to  time, 
but  if  tiles  cannot  be  afforded,  Emdeca  (enamelled 
zinc)  may  be  used,  but  great  care  must  be  taken  with 
the  jointing.  Plain  white  enamelled  walls  are  also 
suitable. 

Casings  to  pipes  should  be  avoided,  as  they  are 
receptacles  for  dust  and  filth. 

The  bath,  hand-basin  and  W.C.  should  for  the 
same  reason  have  no  enclosure,  as  already  men- 
tioned in  chapter  ix.,  page  139.  Many  people  would 
scarcely  credit  the  filth  and  disease  germs  which  are 


DECORATION  AND  FURNISHING  227 

to  be  seen  on  removing  the  old  bath  and  W.C.  en- 
closures in  some  houses. 

Bedrooms — The  bedrooms  should  have  the  fitments 
designed  by  the  architect,  and  they  should  form 
part  of  the  room,  as  this  will  economize  space  and 
give  it  a  finished  appearance.  Although  it  means 
additional  preliminary  expense,  this  will,  however, 
be  saved  in  subsequent  expenditure  on  wardrobes 
and  other  furniture. 

The  floors  should  be  treated  as  described  in 
chapter  vi.,  page  93.  A  bedroom  floor  may  be 
stained  a  warm  colour,  and  light  hand  rugs  may  be 
placed  at  the  bedside  before  the  looking-glass  and 
washhand  stand.  Fitted  carpets  are  a  great  mistake, 
for  besides  harbouring  a  great  deal  of  dirt,  extra 
domestic  labour  is  required  in  sweeping  them. 

The  walls  may  be  finished  in  distemper  of  suitable 
tint,  which,  of  course,  should  vary  with  the  aspect 
of  the  room,  as  it  goes  without  saying  that  a  room 
facing  south  may  be  treated  with  a  cooler  tint  than 
one  facing  north. 

The  ceiling  may  be  left  plain  white,  or  one  may 
get  a  severe  shock  on  waking  from  some  intricate 
geometric  stencil-work,  such  as  one  often  sees  in 
Italian  hotels. 

Kitchen  and  Scullery — The  kitchen  and  scullery  should 
be  floored  with  non-absorptive  materials,  as  mentioned 
in  chapter  vi.,  page  92. 

The  walls  should  be  tiled  or  painted  in  service- 
able colours  of  a  light  tint,  with  a  darker  dado  about 
four  feet  six  inches  high,  so  that  they  may  be  cleaned 
down  with  a  damp  cloth.  The  woodwork  should  be 
painted  a  dark  stone  colour,  well  varnished,  so  that 
it  can  be  occasionally  washed. 


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The  kitchens  should,  in  addition  to  the  dresser, 
have  cupboards  for  brooms,  etc.,  so  that  all  utensils 
may  be  kept  in  their  proper  place. 

Pantry — The  pantry  should  be  treated  in  a  similar 
way  to  the  other  offices,  and  should  be  provided 
with  cupboards. 

The  sink  may  be  of  wood,  lined  with  lead,  or  g-lazed 
stoneware,  as  mentioned  in  chapter  ix.,  page  153. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


THE  ADAPTATION  OF  EXISTING 
HOUSES  TO  MODERN  REQUIREMENTS 

General  Remarks — A  House  in  Guernsey — A  House  in  Hampshire 
—A  Town  House  — Small  Country  House. 

GENERAL  Remarks — The  adaptation  and  altera- 
tion of  existing  houses,  in  order  to  bring  them 
into  line  with  modern  requirements  or  to  suit 
the  special  idiosyncrasies  of  the  purchaser,  is  perhaps 
the  most  interesting  of  all  the  work  that  comes  to  the 
hand  of  the  architect. 

Many  people  like  to  buy  an  old  country  house  or 
cottage  and  alter  it  to  meet  their  individual  taste,  a 
great  advantage  in  this  procedure  being  that  an  old 
and  well-matured  garden  is  usually  secured. 

The  majority  of  such  old  places,  however,  are  ex- 
tremely damp,  owing  to  their  construction,  and  nothing- 
short  of  underpinning  and  the  insertion  of  an  im- 
pervious damp  course  can  render  them  inhabitable. 
The  necessary  alterations  remind  one  of  the  old 
biblical  saying  as  to  the  putting  of  new  wine  into 
old  bottles,  as  the  building  operations  are  liable  to 
shake  the  fabric,  and  the  result  is  often  more  expensive 
than  the  building  of  a  new  house.  The  repairs  to  an 
old  structure  form  also  a  heavy  recurring  expense,  and 
plumbers  and  builders  are  a  nightmare  to  many  owners 
of  delightfully  picturesque  properties,  giving  point 

229 


230  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


to  the  Spanish  proverb,  that  if  one  has  a  very  bitter 
enemy  the  best  way  to  revenge  oneself  is  to  give  him 
an  old  house." 

It  frequently  happens,  moreover,  that  the  alterations 
involve  a  complete  gutting  of  the  interior,  although 
sometimes  a  judicious  rearrangement  of  the  various 
parts  will  completely  transform  the  house  at  a  trifling 
expense.  The  first  point  usually  to  be  considered  in 
the  remodelling  of  the  interior  is  the  formation  of  a 
good  square  entrance-hall  with  fireplace  and  a  recessed 
bay  window  with  seats. 

The  adaptation  of  some  old  houses  may  best  be  illus- 
trated by  actual  examples  ;  although,  bearing  general 
principles  in  mind,  it  is  not  wise  to  multiply  examples, 
as  each  house  must  be  altered  in  accordance  with  its 
own  particular  construction  and  the  accommodation 
required  by  the  owner. 


ADAPTATION  OF  EXISTING  HOUSES  231 

A  House  in  Guernsey — The  alterations  and  additions 
to  a  house  in  Guernsey  are  shown  in  Ills.  182,  183, 
184  and  185. 

The  house  was  an  uninteresting  example  of  the 
Early  Victorian  period,  but  for  family  and  sentimental 
reasons  its  character  was  interfered  with  as  little  as 
possible. 

The  plans  indicate  the  new  walls  in  black,  the 
undisturbed  walls  beine  hatched. 

The  alterations  on  the  Ground  Floor  (111.  182)  con- 
sisted principally  in  the  formation  of  a  large  columned 
Inner  Hall  with  fireplace  giving  on  to  a  covered 
piazza  to  the  south,  as  shown  in  111.  185.  A  new 
Billiard-room,  Lavatory,  Servants'  Stairs,  enlarged 
Dining-room,  new  Kitchen  and  Offices  were  also 
added.  In  order  to  protect  the  Scullery,  Servants' 
Hall  and  Yard  from  the  southern  sun  and  to  form  a 
connection  in  wet  weather,  a  covered  way  was  formed 
between  the  Conservatory  and  Billiard-room. 

The  First  Floor  (111.  183)  was  provided  with  two 
Bathrooms  and  with  additional  Bedrooms,  Dressing- 
rooms  and  a  Passage-way  on  to  the  Balcony  over  the 
piazza. 

The  Second-floor  Bedrooms  were  rearranged,  as 
shown  on  111.  184,  and  in  order  to  protect  those  Bed- 
rooms facing  south  from  the  sun,  which,  at  certain 
seasons  of  the  year,  had  rendered  them  almost  unin- 
habitable, open  belvederes  were  constructed,  as  shown 
in  111.  185.  These  also  formed  cool  balconies  intended 
to  be  used  for  sleeping  during  the  hot  summer  months. 

The  general  view  of  the  exterior  (111.  185)  indicates 
that  an  attempt  was  made  to  retain  the  character 
of  the  house,  the  new  portion  being  finished  in  stucco, 
so  as  to  be  in  harmony  with  the  older  work. 


ADAPTATION  OF  EXISTING  HOUSES  233 


234 


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A  Country  House  in  Hampshire — Abbess  Grange, 
an  old  country  house  in  Hampshire,  was  altered  and 
enlarged  to  suit  modern  requirements,  as  shown  in 
Ills.  i86,  187,  188,  189,  190,  and  191.  The  house  is 
picturesquely  situated  on  a  plateau  formed  on  a  hill- 
side, as  shown  in  111.  191. 

The  plan  (111.  186)  shows  the  alterations  carried 
out,  the  new  walls  beinor  shown  in  black  and  the 
undisturbed  walls  beine  hatched. 

The  Ground-floor  alterations  (111.  186)  consisted  in 
the  formation  of  an  outer  Staircase  Hall,  a  Sitting- 
hall  with  large  fireplace,  a  Morning-room,  a  Con- 
servatory in  connection  with  the  Drawing-room,  a 
bay  window  to  Dining-room,  a  Library  with  columns 
supporting  the  ceiling  where  the  old  partition  was 
removed,  and  a  Billiard-room  with  domed  top  light. 
The  kitchen  and  offices  were  also  entirely  rearranged, 
and  although  they  are  on  the  south  side,  they  are 
sheltered  from  the  sun,  as  they  are  under  the  shadow 
of  the  cliff  A  porte  cochere  to  ensure  shelter  while 
entering  and  departing  was  constructed  to  the  principal 
entrance,  and  is  shown  on  111.  191.  A  small  portion 
of  the  eastern  cliff  was  excavated  for  the  purpose  of 
providing  room  for  coals,  stores,  etc. 

The  First  Floor  was  rearranored  and  extended,  four 
bathrooms  being  provided,  one  for  the  owner  in  con- 
nection with  his  bedroom  suite,  one  in  connection 
with  the  nursery,  and  two  for  the  use  of  visitors. 

The  Second  Floor  was  reached  by  the  Servants' 
Stairs  only,  and  has  also  been  rearranged. 

The  interior  of  the  house  was  entirely  remodelled 
and  redecorated,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
views  : — 

The  Staircase  Hall  (111.  187)  shows  the  new  oak 


ADAPTATION  OF  EXISTING  HOUSES  235 


236  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


staircase  leading  to  the  first  floor,  the  panelled  hall 
and  passage,  and  the  new  doorway  to  the  Dining- 
room  on  the  ri<yht. 

The  Sitting-hall  (111.  i88)  shows  the  new  oak  fire- 
place with  Ionic  pilasters,  the  marble  architrave,  club 
fender,  dog-grate,  panelled  walls  and  ornamental 
ceiling. 

The  Library  (1 11.  189)  shows  the  oak  panelling  carried 
round  the  lower  part  of  the  walls,  the  chimneypiece 
with  Portland  stone  architrave  and  the  tiled  sides  to 
the  new  Teale  Grate.  The  ceiling  is  ribbed  with 
plaster  in  a  geometrical  pattern. 

The  Drawing-room  (111.  190)  was  treated  in  a 
lighter  key,  the  walls  having  cream-enamelled  panel- 
ling with  double  projections  for  photographs  or  prints, 
above  which  is  a  patterned  frieze  and  ornamental 
ceilinor  in  low  relief.  Character  is  ofiven  to  the  fire- 
place  by  including  the  whole  of  the  chimney  breast  in 
its  design.  The  grate  is  of  polished  steel  with  wide 
splays  of  old  green  tiles  enclosed  in  an  architrave  of 
green  Connemara  marble.  The  mantel  itself  is  of 
pine  enamelled  white  with  small  columns  and  recesses 
for  ornaments.  The  lock  handles,  finger  plates, 
electric  and  other  fittings  throughout  the  house  were 
specially  designed. 

The  external  treatment  was  governed  by  the  exist- 
ing type  of  windows  and  chimneys.  Local  stone  was 
employed,  and  a  simple  mullioned  treatment  adopted, 
the  idea  dominating  the  scheme  being  the  reposeful 
character  of  the  manor-house  of  mediaeval  times. 


ADAPTATION  OF  EXISTING  HOUSES  237 

A  COUNTRY  HOUSE  IN  HAMPSHIRE 


III.  188.    The  Sitting-hall,  showing  Fireplace. 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i. b.a..  Architects. 


ADAPTATION  OF  EXISTING  HOUSES  239 


ADAPTATION  OF  EXISTING  HOUSES  241 


A  Town  House — The  adaptation  of  No.  44,  Gros- 
venor  Place,  for  the  Brazilian  Embassy  is  shown  by 
Ills.  192  and  193. 

The  First  Floor  (111.  192)  demonstrates  how  the 
front  and  back  drawing-rooms  were  thrown  into  one 
by  the  removal  of  the  partition  and  the  insertion  of 
Ionic  columns  to  carry  the  wall  above,  The  general 
appearance  of  this  alteration  is  indicated  in  111.  194, 
which  also  shows  the  new  overmantel  to  the  fire- 
place with  its  frame  surrounding  the  central  oil 
painting. 

The  Second,  Third  and  Fourth  Floors  were  pro- 
vided, as  shown  in  111.  193,  with  bathrooms  and  lava- 
tories formed  out  of  the  wide  corridor,  and  ventilated 
into  an  area  which  lighted  the  main  staircase;  this  was 
covered  with  a  curved  skylight  at  the  second-floor 
level. 

The  alterations  to  London  houses  usually  embrace 
the  provision  of  lavatories,  bathrooms  and  W.C.'s,  as 
these  are  lamentably  deficient  in  all  old  houses. 


242 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects. 


ADAPTATION  OF  EXISTING  HOUSES  243 

A  TOWN  HOUSE 


III.  194.    The  Drawing-room. 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Archiiects. 


244  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

A  SMALL  COUNTRY  HOUSE 


III.  196.    Sitting-hall,  showing  Bay  Window. 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects. 


ADAPTATION  OF  EXISTING  HOUSES  245 


A  Small  Country  House — The  Lawn,  Pinner,  a  small 
country  house,  was  altered,  as  shown  in  Ills.  195  and 
196,  by  the  conversion  of  the  scullery  into  a  sitting-hall, 
by  the  removal  of  certain  walls  and  the  erection  of  an 
irregular-shaped  bay.  Bay  windows  were  added  to 
other  rooms,  more  light  was  obtained  by  the  removal 
of  an  antiquated  lavatory,  and  a  feature  was  made  of 
a  lounge  on  the  mezzanine  thrown  out  to  the  south 
front.  A  small  servants'  winof  was  formed  to  the 
north-west  of  the  plan. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 

A  Seaside  Home  in  Thanet,  designed  by 
Arthur  T.  Bolton,  F.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  197,  198,  199,  200,  and  201.) 

THIS  house  is  built  as  a  family  home  by  the  sea, 
and  its  plan  and  construction  are  to  be  under- 
stood from  that  point  of  view. 
The  oblong  shape  of  the  plan  affords  the  maximum 
of  sunlight  and  a  wide  unobstructed  view  over  the  sea, 
as  will  be  seen  in  111.  201,  which  is  a  view  of  the 
house  taken  from  the  sands  at  low  tide. 

The  house  stands  on  a  quarter-acre  plot  on  the 
edge  of  a  chalk  pit  which  forms  a  sunk  valley  garden 
sheltered  from  the  prevailing  winds. 

The  ground  -  floor  plan  (111.  197)  shows  that  the 
place  of  the  usual  third  reception-room  is  taken  by 
the  recessed  veranda  and  the  terrace,  where  meals 
can  be  enjoyed  in  the  open  air.  The  dining  and 
drawing  rooms  are  connected  by  a  folding  partition 
in  view  of  children's  parties,  and  various  minor  arrange- 
ments of  the  plan  are  provided  from  the  same  point  of 
view,  as,  for  instance,  the  storage  of  cycles,  etc.,  at  the 
front  rather  than  at  the  rear  of  the  house. 

The  kitchen  arrangements  are  unusually  ample  and 
allow  of  some  degree  of  comfort  for  the  domestics, 
the  outer  kitchen  (No.  5)  being  practically  a  servants' 
hall. 

246 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 

A  SEASIDE  HOME  IN  THANET 


III.  197.    Ground-floor  Plan. 


III.  199.    Attic  Plan. 
Reference. 


1.  Outer  Hall. 

2.  Dining-room. 

3.  Drawing-room. 

4.  Kitchen. 

5.  Outer  Kitchen. 


247 


6.  Pantry. 

7.  Bedrooms. 

8.  Dressing-room. 

9.  Children's  Playroom. 

Arthur  T.  Boston,  f,r.i.b,a..  Architect^ 


248 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


The  bedroom-floor  plan  (111.  198)  provides  a  com- 
plete suite  (bedroom,  dressing  and  bath  room)  for 
guests  or  for  isolation  in  case  of  illness.  The  nursery 
has  a  central  position,  and  the  covered  balcony  can  be 
used  by  young  children  for  play  or  sleeping  in  the 
open,  while  also  giving  access  to  the  mother's  room. 

The  attic  has  a  large  playroom  or  children's  para- 
dise, formed  in  the  roof  with  a  lining  of  fireproof 
slabs.  The  archinor  over  the  flue  forms  a  natural 
proscenium  for  charades  and  other  games.  Floors 
and  partitions  throughout  are  specially  packed  to 
deaden  the  noise  of  the  children.  The  bathroom  and 
lavatories  have  tiled  walls  and  first-class  sanitary 
fittings,  and  there  is  a  liberal  provision  of  cupboards 
and  other  fittings  throughout  the  house. 

The  house  is  built  of  Kentish  stock  brick  with 
granite  and  cement  rouo-h  cast  and  has  a  red-tile  roof 
(111.  201).  It  is  strongly  constructed  to  resist  the 
wind  and  weather  conditions,  which  are  severe.  The 
garden  is  enclosed  by  a  rough  rag  rubble  wall. 

The  total  cost  may  be  taken  as  ^1500  inclusive  for 
a  similar  house  in  any  ordinary  locality. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 

A  SEASIDE  HOME  IN  THANET 


III.  200,    The  Drawing-room. 


III.  201.    Sea  Front. 

Arthur  T.  Bolton,  f.r.i.b.a.,  Architect. 


MODERN  ENGLISH   HOMES  251 


Bengeo  House,  Hertford,  designed  by 
Walter  Cave,  F.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  202,  203,  204,  205,  206,  207,  and  208.) 

This  house  was  designed  to  take  the  place  of  one 
which  had  been  burnt  to  the  ground.  It  was  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  keep  the  cost  to  ^4000,  and  in  the 
end  the  owner  entered  into  occupation  with  the  house 
completed  in  every  respect  for  ^3990.  The  accommo- 
dation required  was  as  follows  : — Hall,  library,  dining- 
room,  drawing-room,  with  the  usual  servants'  offices, 
servants'  hall,  thirteen  bedrooms  for  the  family,  four 
servants'  rooms,  three  bathrooms  and  five  W.C.'s,  etc. 

It  was  evident  that  there  would  have  to  be  great 
economy  exercised  in  the  planning  so  as  to  provide 
the  necessary  rooms  within  the  cost. 

The  arrangement  adopted  began  with  a  hall  from 
which  all  the  principal  ground-floor  rooms  opened  and 
one  central  passage  through  the  offices  to  the  back  door. 

The  same  central  passage  is  used  on  the  two  floors 
above,  and  is  lit  by  the  windows  of  the  back  and 
front  staircases. 

The  pitch  of  the  roof  adopted  was  52  degrees, 
which  being  fairly  steep  gives  good  rooms  in  the 
attics  with  ashlaring  5  ft.  high. 

The  walls  were  built  with  a  mottled  purple  Luton 
brick  with  red-brick  arches  and  string  course,  and 
a  fine  lot  of  old  roof  tiles  were  fortunately  obtained  in 
the  neighbourhood. 

The  hall  and  three  best  rooms  on  the  ground  floor 
have  oak  floors  and  birch  doors  stained  dark  brown, 
the  other  woodwork  being  left  white.  All  the  ser- 
vants' department  and  most  of  the  woodwork  else- 
where throughout  the  house  are  of  yellow  deal  stained 
a  dark  brown  and  dull  polished. 


2S2 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

BENGEO  HOUSE,  HERTFORD 


III.  202.    Ground-floor  Plan. 


1  (z)  i^l 

.(Z)  |j 

III.  203.    First-floor  Plan 


1.  HalL 

2.  Dining-room. 

3.  Drawing-room. 


III.  204.    Attic  Plan. 

Reference. 

4.  Library.  7.  Bedrooms. 

5.  Kitchen.  10.  Nursery. 

6.  Servants'  Hall.  11.  Maids'  Rooms. 

Walter  Cave,  f.k.i.b.a.,  Arcktiect. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 

BENGEO  HOUSE,  HERTFORD 


254 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

BENGEO  HOUSE,  HERTFORD 


III.  208.    South-west  Elevation. 

Walter  Cave,  f.r.i.b.a..  Architect. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  255 


Sherwood,  Newton  St.  Cyres,  Devon,  designed  by 
Walter  Cave,  F.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  209  and  210,) 

This  house  is  situated  on  a  somewhat  inaccessible 
hillside  at  some  distance  from  a  village  and  the  main 
road,  and  in  consequence  it  was  essential  to  plan  the 
house  with  a  view  to  economy  in  working,  as  the  ser- 
vice difficulty  was  sure  to  be  great.  The  plan  adopted 
was  the  hollow  square,  which  gives  the  minimum  of 
passages  and  easy  and  quick  access  to  all  rooms.  The 
central  courtyard  is  used  for  lighting  the  passages, 
bathroom  and  the  less  important  servants'  offices. 
Free  ventilation  into  this  court  from  the  passage  is  an 
important  point  in  the  somewhat  exposed  situation. 

The  cost  was  about  £4.200. 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

SHERWOOD,  NEWTON  ST.  GYRES,  DEVON 


(D 


3l 


Tl — Fl 

(D  1 

III.  209.    Ground-floor  Plan. 


^ALE  or 


III.  210.    First-floor  Plan. 
10    5    0  10 


20 


Hall. 

Dining-room. 

Drawing-room. 

Library. 


Reference. 
5.  Kitchen. 


9.  Day  Nursery. 

10.  Night  Nursery. 

1 1.  Maids'  Room. 


6.  Servants'  Hall. 

7.  Bedroom. 

8.  Dressing-room. 

Walter  Cave,  f.r.i.b.a..  Architect. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  257 


Maes  Heulyn,  Trefnant,  North  Wales,  designed  by 
E.  Guy  Dawber,  F.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  211,  213,  214,  215,  and  216.) 

This  house  is  built  of  brick  and  rough  cast,  with 
stone  dressings  to  the  external  doors  and  gables, 
the  roof  being  of  grey  -  green  slates  graduated  in 
size  from  the  eaves  to  the  ridge.  The  rooms  are 
finished  in  white  deal,  enamelled,  with  oak  floors 
and  hand-modelled  plaster  ceilings. 


258  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


MAES  HEULYN,  TREFNANT,  NORTH  WALES 


III.  212.    First-floor  Plan. 

E,  Guy  Dawber,  f.r.i.b.a.,  Architect 


III.  214.    The  Garden  Front, 

E.  Guy  Dawber,  f.r.i.b.a.,  Architect. 


26o  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

MAES  HEULYN,  TREFNANT,  NORTH  WALES 


III,  215.    The  Hall  and  Staircase. 


III.  216.    TiiE  Drawing-room. 

E.  Guy  Davvber,  f.r.i.b.a.,  Architect. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  261 


Wynnes  Pare,  North  Wales,  designed  by 
E.  Guy  Dawber,  F.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  217,  218,  219,  and  220.) 

Wynnes  Pare  is  in  the  Vale  of  Clwyd,  and  the 
house  had  the  advantage  of  being  built  in  an  existing 
orehard  and  old  garden  which  by  a  small  amount 
of  alteration  has  been  worked  in  to  suit  the  new 
house. 

Stone  -  flagged  paths  and  formal  beds  make  a 
pleasant  feature  when  seen  from  the  windows  of  the 
house  or  the  loggia  which  adjoins  the  parlour. 


17 


262 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

WYNNES  PARC,  NORTH  WALES 


III.  2i8.    First-floor  Plan. 

E,  Guy  Dawber,  f.k.i.b.a,,  Architect, 


MODERN  ENGLISH   HOMES  263 


WYNNES  PARC,  NORTH  WALES 


III.  219.    The  Parlour. 


III.  220.    The  Entrance  Forecourt. 


E.  Guy  Dawber,  f.r.i.b.a.,  Architect. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  265 


Seldown,  Potters  Bar,  designed  by 
Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  221,  222,  223,  224,  and  225.) 

This  house  was  the  first  to  be  erected  on  the 
Potters  Bar  estate,  which  is  being  developed  in 
order  to  provide  detached  houses  of  an  economical 
description  within  easy  access  of  Town.  The 
accommodation  on  the  ground  floor  consists  of  dining- 
room  with  ingle  -  nook,  sitting  -  hall  with  fireplace, 
large  drawing  -  room  with  tiled  loggia,  kitchen 
and  usual  offices.  The  first  floor  contains  five  bed- 
rooms, a  dressing  -  room,  bathroom  and  lavatory, 
and  the  attic  floor  has  two  bedrooms  and  linen 
cupboards. 

The  ground-floor  rooms  are  panelled  to  a  height 
of  seven  feet  with  Oregon  pine.  The  floors  to 
drawing  -  room  and  dining  -  room  are  of  pitchpine 
wood  block,  and  the  hall  has  4-in.  square  red  tiles. 

The  house  is  solidly  constructed  with  14 -in. 
external  walls,  and  effect  has  been  sought  for  by 
the  simple  distribution  of  the  parts.  The  exterior 
is  rough  cast,  and  the  roof  is  covered  with  grey- 
green  Lancashire  slates  laid  in  diminishing  courses. 
The  house  was  detailed  throughout  by  the  architects, 
who  also  designed  much  of  the  simple  furniture  which 
it  contains.    The  cost  was  160. 

The  garden  is  laid  out  in  accordance  with  the 
architects'  plans. 


266 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


SELDOWN,  POTTERS  BAR 


III.  221.    Ground-floor  Plan. 


III.  222.    First-floor  Plan. 


III.  223.    Attic  Plan. 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects. 


MODERN  ENGLISH   HOMES  267 

SELDOWN,  POTTERS  BAR 


111.  224.    The  Garden  Front. 


III.  225.    The  Entrance  Front. 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects^ 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  269 


Homeleigh,  Potters  Bar,  designed  by 
Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  226,  227,  228,  229,  230,  231,  232,  and  238.) 

The  site  of  this  house  sloped  considerably  from 
the  road,  and  consequently  it  was  possible  to  get 
storage  for  bicycles  and  other  accommodation  under 
the  drawing-room,  as  shown  on  111.  231.  The 
square  sitting-hall  practically  adds  another  reception- 
room  to  the  house,  which  is  erected  with  14-in.  walls 
treated  with  rough  cast  and  roofed  with  red  tiles. 

Ills.  229  and  230  show  the  interior,  in  which  the 
joists  to  the  floors  are  visible  throughout,  there  being 
no  plaster  ceilings  in  the  house.  Two  thicknesses 
of  boarding  were  used  on  the  surface  of  the  joists, 
and  a  layer  of  non-conducting  material  was  placed 
between  them  in  order  to  prevent  sound  passing  from 
one  floor  to  another,  as  will  be  easily  understood  by 
reference  to  111.  31. 

The  cost  of  this  house  was  ^1300. 


270  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


HOMELEIGH,  POTTERS  BAR 


III.  226.    Ground-floor  Plan. 


III.  227.    First-floor  Plan. 


III.  228.    Attic  Plan. 


Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects. 


III.  230.    The  Dining-room. 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.f.b.a.,  Architects. 


272  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

HOMELEIGH,   POTTERS  BAR 


III.  232.    The  Entrance  Front. 

Banister  Fietcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  273 


The  Three  Gables,  Potters  Bar,  designed  by 
Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  233,  234,  235,  236,  237,  239,  240,  and  241.) 

This  house  was  erected  for  Mr.  F.  J.  Philps,  who 
is  one  of  the  Directors  of  the  Potters  Bar  Estates 
Company. 

The  plan  has  a  square  central  sitting-hall  (a  view  of 
which  is  shown  in  111.  239),  dining-room  with  ingle- 
nook  and  large  drawing-room  connected  to  the 
veranda ;  much  of  the  simple  furniture  has  been 
designed  by  the  architects. 

The  exterior  has  rough  cast  and  tile-hung  walls 
and  the  roof  is  covered  with  red  titles. 

The  cost  of  this  house  was  ^1585,  including  en- 
trance gates  and  drive. 


274 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects. 


III.  237.    The  Dining-room. 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects. 


276  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

HOMELEIGII,   POTTERS  BAR 


Ii.L  238.    1  iiv  IN  Inner  Hall. 

THE  THREE  GABLES,  POTTERS  BAR 


III  239.    Thk  Sittinc;-hall  and  1)lnin(,-room  Ingle  beyond. 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.k.i.b.a.,  Arc/iifccts. 


III.  241.    The  Entrance  Front. 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  279 


The  Fourth  House,  Potters  Bar,  designed  by 
Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  242,  243,  244,  245,  and  246.) 

This  plan  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  The 
Three  Gables,  but  a  smoking-room,  lavatory  and 
W.C.  are  included  on  the  orround  floor  and  an  extra 
bedroom  is  also  contrived  in  the  attic  story  (111.  244). 

The  exterior  is  Georgian  in  character,  the  bricks 
being  specially  selected  to  give  a  somewhat  mottled  ap- 
pearance, which  gives  a  pleasing  texture.  The  wooden 
cornice  has  a  projection  of  2  ft.  6  in.,  thus  throwing 
a  good  shadow  and  protecting  the  walls  from  rain. 

The  roof  is  covered  with  heavy  green  Westmor- 
land slates  laid  in  diminishing  courses. 

This  house  cost  ^1570,  including  the  entrance  gates. 


8 


8o  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


THE  FOURTH  HOUSE,  POTTERS  BAR 


III.  242.    Ground-floor  Plan. 


III.  243.    First-floor  Plan. 


III.  244.    A  ttic  Plan. 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects. 


MODERN  ENGLISH   HOMES  281 

THE  FOURTH  HOUSE,  POTTERS  BAR 


III.  246,    The  Entrance  Front. 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b  a.,  Architects. 


282  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  283 


The  Fifth  House,  Potters  Bar,  designed  by 
Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(111.  247.) 

This  house  has  a  sitting-hall  so  screened  that  it  is 
rendered  more  secluded.  The  walls  externally  are  of 
ofrooved  bricks  roueh  casted,  and  the  roofs  are  covered 
with  thick  Gloucestershire  stone  slabs  laid  in  diminish- 
ing courses  and  giving  a  homely  appearance  to  the 
house,  besides  keeping  the  attic  rooms  cool  in  summer 
as  mentioned  in  chapter  iv.,  page  70. 

The  cost  of  this  house  was  ^1552,  including 
entrance  oates.  ^  • 


284  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Churchill,  West  Hampstead,  designed  by 
Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  248,  249,  and  250.) 

This  house  was  erected  upon  a  comparatively 
narrow  corner  plot  and  is  constructed  of  red  brick 
with  Bath  stone  dressings,  the  roof  being  covered 
with  red  tiles.  Owing  to  the  site  the  hall  is  of  the 
gallery  form  and  the  staircase  is  at  the  end. 

The  cost  of  this  house  was  ^^1650. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 


CHURCHILL,  WEST  HAMPSTEAD,  N.W. 


III.  250.    The  Entrance  Front. 


Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects 


286 


THE  ENCxLISH  HOME 


A  BACHELOR'S  HOUSE,  ASHFORD,  KENT 


Scale  '°  °  '°  '°  f^e'f 


III.  251.    Ground-floor  Flan.  III.  252.    First-floor  Plan. 


III.  253.    The  Garden  Front. 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Arcliitects. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  287 


A  Bachelor's  House  at  Ashford,  Kent,  designed  by 
Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  251,  252,  and  253.) 

This  house  was  desioned  for  a  bachelor  whose 
instructions  as  to  accommodation  were  carried  out. 
The  idea  was  that  the  dining-room  would  be  used  as 
a  general  living-room  and  no  third  reception-room 
was  required. 

The  service  was  to  be  economical,  and  the  way 
from  the  kitchen  to  the  front  door  is  conveniently 
schemed  under  the  main  staircase. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  cost  of  this  house 
should  not  exceed  ^1200. 


288 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Cuthbert  Villas,  Westgate-on-Sea,  designed  by 
Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  254,  255,  256,  and  257.) 

This  pair  of  houses  was  erected  upon  ground  facing 
the  sea  and  consequently  the  drawing-room  with  a 
large  bay  window  was  designed  as  the  principal  living- 
room,  the  ingle-nook  in  it  being  raised  one  step  above 
the  general  level  of  the  room  ;  a  small  square  hall 
with  fireplace  is  provided.  There  are  folding  doors 
between  the  drawing-room  and  dining-room,  but  these 
are  not  shown  upon  the  plan. 

The  houses  are  built  of  local  bricks,  the  base  of  the 
main  wall  being  of  stone,  and  the  half-timber  work  of 
the  oables  runs  rioht  throuoh  the  walls  and  is  not  a 
mere  facing  sham. 

The  chimneys  are  carried  up  as  small  towers  and 
are  intended  to  aid  the  skyline. 

This  pair  of  houses  cost  ^1500  including  the  front 
fences. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 

CUTHBERT  VILLAS.  WESTGATE-ON-SEA 


289 


Banistrr  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects. 


290  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Canterbury  Parade,  Westgate-on-Sea,  designed  by 
Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(111.  258.) 

This  row  of  small  houses  is  constructed  of  red  brick 
and  hanging  tile  facings  with  projecting  wooden  bays 
on  the  first  floor ;  an  endeavour  was  made  to  obtain 
breadth  and  architectural  effect  by  a  simple  treatment. 

The  roofs  are  covered  with  local  tiles,  while  the 
chimneys  are  rough  cast  and  crowned  with  stone  caps. 

These  premises  are  well  suited  for  conversion 
into  shops  in  the  near  future,  a  large  beam  being 
taken  across  the  front,  so  that  the  windows  to  the 
ground  floor,  at  any  time,  can  be  taken  out  and  shop 
fronts  inserted. 

The  cost  of  the  block  of  five  houses  amounted 
to  ^4800. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 

CUTHBERT  VILLAS,  WESTGATE-ON-SEA 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  293 


The  Observatory,  Westgate-on-Sea,  designed  by 
Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  259,  260,  261,  and  262.) 

This  house  commands  extensive  views  of  Westgate 
Bay.  The  ground-floor  plan  (111.  259)  indicates  that 
a  feature  has  been  made  of  the  hall  living-room, 
which  has  a  stone  colonnade  and  is  panelled  to  a 
height  of  7  ft.  6  in.  in  stone.  Ingle-nooks  are 
planned  in  the  hall,  drawing  and  dining  rooms,  in 
order  that  full  advantage  of  the  fine  views  may  be 
obtained.  The  billiard-room  is  situated  on  the  first 
floor  (111.  260),  and  has  a  door  leading  on  to  the  ex- 
tensive balcony  which  is  carried  over  the  bays  and 
loggia,  and  occupies  the  whole  front  of  the  house. 

Seven  large  bedrooms  and  two  bathrooms  are  also 
contained  on  the  first  and  second  floors  (111.  260 
and  261). 

The  building  (111.  262)  is  constructed  of  bricks  with 
tile-hanging,  the  chimney-stacks  being  rough  cast  and 
crowned  with  stone  copings,  and  the  roof  is  covered 
with  sand-faced  tiles. 

The  belvedere,  or  observatory,  from  which  views  of 
the  sea  and  the  surrounding  country  are  obtained,  gives 
its  name  to  the  house,  and  is  formed  at  the  summit  of 
the  main  roof  and  covered  with  copper  and  crowned 
with  a  weather  vane. 

The  cost  of  this  house,  including  fence  walls,  gates 
and  garden,  totalled  ^2895. 


19 


MODERN  ENGLISH   HOMES  295 


THE  OBSERVATORY,  WESTGATE-ON-SEA 


III.  262.    The  Entrance  Fi;ont. 


Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  297 


Ladywell,  West  Hampstead,  designed  by- 
Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  263,  264,  265,  and  266.) 

The  plan  of  this  house  was  determined  by  the 
narrowness  of  the  site,  which  is  frequently  the  case 
in  suburban  districts.  It  will  be  noticed  that  on 
the  ground  floor  the  dining-room  and  library  are 
connected  by  sliding  doors  for  reception  purposes 
(111.  264).  The  billiard-room  is  situated  in  the  half- 
basement  (111.  263). 

The  buildino-  is  faced  with  bricks,  and  there  are 
Portland  stone  balustrades  and  dressings,  and  a  small 
copper  dome  is  constructed  over  the  angle  tower-like 
structure  which  forms  a  bay  window  on  each  floor. 

This  house  cost  ^2650. 


298 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


A  Country  House  in  Surrey,  designed  by 
Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  267,  268,  and  269.) 

It  will  be  noticed  from  the  small  plan  (111.  267)  that 
the  reception-rooms  are  all  en  suite,  thus  providing 
five  fair-sized  rooms  and  a  conservatory  for  reception 
purposes.  The  first  floor  (111.  268)  has  seven  bed- 
rooms, dressing-room,  etc. 

The  walls  are  of  stone,  the  roof  beinof  covered 
with  sand-faced  tiles,  which  latter  are  also  used  for 
tile-hanainor  to  the  p'able-ends,  which  conform  with  the 
mansard  treatment  of  the  main  roof 


300 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 


A  Garden  Pavilion  overlooking  a  Lake,  designed  by 
Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(111.  270.) 

This  is  a  rather  monumental  treatment  of  a  orarclen 
pavihon  which  can  only  be  adopted  in  connection  with 
a  large  country  mansion.  It  is  approached  from  the 
land  side  by  a  drive,  and  access  is  also  obtained  from 
the  lake  by  two  landing-stages  leading  to  either  of 
the  wings.  A  boat-house  is  arranged  by  means  of 
the  arched  opening  under  the  central  domed  feature. 

The  enclosinof  colonnades  are  formed  as  "  winors  " 
to  the  main  portico  which  is  placed  in  front  of  the 
principal  apartment ;  a  small  kitchen  for  cooking  light 
repasts  and  lavatories  for  gentlemen  and  ladies  are 
also  provided. 


302 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


New  Farm-house  at  Astonbury,  Knebworth,  Herts, 
designed  by  Forsyth  and  Maule,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  271,  272,  273,  and  274.) 

This  farm-house  is  situated  at  some  distance  from 
the  public  road  and  is  designed  to  accommodate  two 
families,  the  farmer  occupying  the  larger  (western) 
cottage  and  a  farm  labourer  the  smaller  one. 

The  external  walls  are  nine  inches  thick,  and  are 
covered  with  plaster  finished  with  a  rough  surface 
and  not  in  any  way  artificially  coloured.  The  chim- 
neys and  plinth  are  built  in  thin  red  facing  bricks, 
which  vary  greatly  in  colour  and  have  a  flush  mortar 
joint. 

The  roofs  and  the  offsets  of  the  chimneys  are 
covered  with  old  weathered  tiles. 

Interesting  features  externally  (111.  274)  are  the 
teak  gutters  and  down  pipes.  The  gutters  are  V- 
shaped  and  are  supported  on  brackets  secured  to  the 
walls  and  rafter  feet. 

The  window  frames  throughout  are  in  oak  and 
have  leaded  lights  in  wrought-iron  casements. 

The  gables  have  oak  verge  rafters  supported,  clear 
of  the  plaster  face,  on  plates  and  purlins  carried 
through  the  walls. 

Internally  the  large  open  brick  fireplaces  (III 
273)  have  oak  beams  over  and  are  paved  with  red 
bricks. 

Simplicity  is  the  keynote  of  the  design,  and  local 
tradition  has  been  as  far  as  possible  adapted  to  modern 
requirements.  It  should  be  said  that  the  elevations 
have  been  largely  influenced  by  an  old  farm-house  in 
Hertfordshire  and  by  its  proximity  to  the  fine  manor- 
house  of  Astonbury. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  303 


3o6 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Cottages  at  Astonbury,  Knebworth,  Herts,  designed  by 
Forsyth  and  Maule,  FF.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  275,  276,  277,  and  278.) 

The  double  cottage  is  designed  to  accommodate 
-two  families. 

It  is  built  on  similar  lines  to  the  farm-house  (Ills. 
271,  272,  273  and  274),  but  the  roof  is  covered  with 
Norfolk  reed-thatch. 

The  illustrations  of  this  and  the  farm-house  are 
published  by  the  kind  permission  of  the  owner, 
V.  A.  Malcolmson,  Esq. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  307 


COTTAGES  AT  ASTONBURY,  HERTFORDSHIRE 


 1  1  ^.^r, 

III.  275,    Ground-floor  Plan. 


III.  276.    First-floor  Plan. 

Forsyth  and  Maule,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  309 


Elmstead,  Limpsfield,  Surrey,  designed  by- 
Arthur  Keen,  F.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  279,  280,  281,  and  282.) 

The  main  consideration  which  governed  the  plan- 
ning of  the  house,  after  economy,  was  the  desire 
of  the  owner  to  get  direct  sunHght  into  all  the  rooms 
and  to  protect  himself  as  much  as  possible  from  the 
north  wind. 

The  house  faces  a  large  common,  and  its  exterior  was 
made  simple  and  unobtrusive,  so  as  to  suit  its  position. 

It  is  built  with  hollow  walls  sixteen  inches  thick 
and  faced  with  rough  cast  to  exclude  the  driving  rains, 
and  the  tiles  were  obtained  from  an  old  barn  on  the 
site  which  had  to  be  demolished. 

The  internal  treatment  is  quite  simple,  but  the 
work  is  solid  and  strong  throughout.  There  are  large 
beams  over  the  sitting-rooms  to  carry  the  bedroom 
floors  ;  the  roof  has  a  large  storage  room  in  it  and  is 
strongly  timbered  and  boarded  and  felted  under  the 
tiling. 

The  actual  cost,  including  the  decoration  and  drain- 
age, was  under  ^900.  The  house  is  a  good  illustration 
of  the  fact  that  if  local  materials  are  used  and  simple 
treatment  adopted,  so  that  the  village  builder  can  be 
employed  with  satisfactory  results,  a  great  deal  of 
accommodation  can  be  obtained  for  a  small  outlay. 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


ELMSTEAD,  LIMPSFIELD,  SURREY 


III.  280.    First-floor  Plan. 


MODERN   ENGLISH  HOMES 

ELMSTEAD,  LIMPSFIELD,  SURREY 


111.  281.    The  Entranxe  Front. 


III.  282.    The  Garden  Front. 


Arthur  Keen,  f.k.i.b.a.,  Architect. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 


Grey  Walls,  Gullane,  N.B.,  designed  by 
Edwin  L.  Lutyens,  F.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  283,  284,  285,  286,  287,  288,  289,  290,  and  291.) 

This  house  was  built  for  the  Hon.  Alfred  Lyttel- 
ton,  M.P.,  in  1 90 1.  The  problem  was  to  build  a  house 
which  in  relation  to  its  cost  would  have  a  considerable 
amount  of  accommodation. 

The  plan  is  an  interesting  example,  and  the  general 
lay-out  shown  in  111.  285  is  exceedingly  original,  the 
drive  to  the  main  building  being  a  special  feature. 

The  ground  plan  (111.  283)  shows  the  quadrant 
entrance  court,  and  the  clever  planning  of  the  entrance 
corridor  to  the  drawing-room  (111.  290)  shows  the 
skilful  treatment  of  this  portion  of  the  house.  111.  289 
o-ives  a  view  of  the  ofarden  side. 

The  house  has  since  passed  into  the  possession  of 
Mr.  W.  James  and  it  became  essential  to  add  rooms 
for  additional  valets  and  chauffeurs,  and  these  were 
arranged  in  the  form  of  lodges  shown  in  Ills.  285  and 
286. 

The  walls  are  of  local  stone,  with  grey  pantiles 
from  Holland  coverinor  the  roofs. 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


MODERN   ENGLISH  HOMES 

GREY  WALLS,  GULLANE,  N.B. 


III.  285.    Block  Plan. 


III.  286.    Entrance  Lodges  for  Valets  and  Chauffeurs. 

Edwin  L.  Lutyens,  f.r.i.b.a.,  Architect. 


3i6  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


GREY  WALLS,  GULLANE,  N.B. 


III.  287.    The  Entrance  Door. 


III.  288.    The  Drawing-room. 


Edwin  L.  Lutyens,  f.r.i.b.a.,  Architect. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 

GREY  WALLS,  GULLANE,  N.B. 


III.  289.    The  Garden  Front. 


III.  290.    The  Entrance  Front. 

Edwin  L.  Lutyens,  f.k.i.b.a.,  Aj-chitect. 


3i8 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

GREY  WALLS,  GULLANE,  N.B. 


III.  292.    The  Dining-room. 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.t.p.a.,  Architects. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 


Littlewick  Meadow,  Horsell,  Surrey,  designed  by 
Maurice  H.  Pocock. 

(Ills.  293,  294,  295,  and  296.) 

This  house,  situated  on  the  edge  of  Horsell 
Common  about  two  or  three  miles  from  Woking 
villaofe,  is  built  in  the  traditional  Enorlish  mode  with 
brick  and  tiles.  It  has  a  central  house  place  or  hall 
which  is  higher  than  the  other  rooms. 

The  exterior  has  a  quiet  and  restrained  character 
which  is  reminiscent  of  old  English  architecture. 


20 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

LITTLEWICK  MEADOW,  HORSELL,  SURREY 


III.  293.    Ground-floor  Plan. 


III.  294.    First-floor  Plan. 

Mauuice  H.  Pocock,  Architect. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  323 


Cottage  at  Wendover,  Bucks,  designed  by 
Maurice  H.  Pocock. 

(Ills.  297,  298,  and  299.) 

This  house  is  built  on  the  hill  just  above  the 
station  and  has  been  built  as  a  week-end  house  and 
not  for  continuous  residence.  The  bricks  and  weather 
tiling  are  whitewashed  and  old  tiles  were  procured  for 
the  roof 


Maurice  H,  Pocock,  Architect. 


326 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


The  Orchard  Farm,  Broadway,  Worcestershire, 
designed  by  A.  N.  Prentice,  F.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  300  and  301.) 

This  is  an  example  of  an  old  Cotswold  farm-house 
which  has  been  converted  to  the  modern  requirements 
of  a  country  house.  The  old  house  has  only  been 
altered  externally  by  opening  up  a  few  old  windows 
that  had  been  bricked  up,  and  by  replacing  some 
modern  windows  with  stone  mullioned  ones  in  char- 
acter with  those  that  were  there  originally. 

The  interior  has  been  adapted  for  modern  recep- 
tion-rooms and  bedrooms,  the  old  fireplaces  being 
retained.  Most  of  the  old  constructional  woodwork 
was  in  a  decayed  condition  and  has  been  renewed 
and  the  walls  and  ceilings  replastered.  The  old  barn 
in  the  rear  has  been  converted  into  a  music-room 
forty-four  feet  long  by  twenty-four  feet  wide  with  bed- 
room accommodation  in  the  upper  portion. 

The  music-room  has  heavy  moulded  carved  oak 
principals  carrying  the  beams  on  which  the  joists  rest 
that  form  the  floor  and  ceiling.  It  is  panelled  in  oak, 
the  upper  end  of  the  room  being  raised  to  form  a 
dais. 

A  new  kitchen  wing  has  been  added  containing, 
besides  kitchen  and  scullery,  a  servants'  hall,  larder, 
butler's  pantry  and  wine  cellar. 

A  brick  and  stone  paved  court  has  been  formed 
between  the  two  projecting  wings  of  the  building, 
and  is  laid  out  with  flower  borders,  stone  steps  lead- 
ing from  the  court  to  the  garden  below.  111.  300 
shows  the  grouping  of  the  old  and  new  building  and 
the  laying  out  of  the  garden  as  seen  from  the  road. 


MODERN   ENGLISH  HOMES 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 


330 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Semi-detached  Houses  at  Hampstead  Garden  Suburb, 
designed  by  M.  H.  Baillie-Scott. 

(Ills.  302,  303,  304,  305,  306,  and  307.) 

The  illustrations  of  the  semi-detached  houses  at 
Hampstead  Garden  Suburb  represent  a  simple  case 
of  the  application  of  certain  principles  of  planning  to 
small  houses  advocated  by  Mr.  Scott.  In  the  first 
instance,  in  the  general  conception  of  a  small  house  it 
seems  desirable  that  one  should  think  of  realizino-  a 
large  and  roomy  cottage  rather  than  a  cramped  villa  ; 
that  the  limited  sum  available  for  such  a  building 
should  be  spent  in  floor  space  and  elbow  room  rather 
than  in  lofty  and  necessarily  smaller  rooms.  Then  it 
is  essential  that  the  plan  should  not  consist  of  a  series 
of  rectangular  plastered  boxes  each  too  small  for  com- 
fort, crowded  with  suites  of  furniture  and  absolutely 
unrelated  to  each  other ;  but  rather  that  our  concep- 
tion of  the  interior  should  hold  fast  to  the  ideal  of  at 
least  one  roomy  apartment  surrounded  by  such  smaller 
ones  as  may  be  required.  These  smaller  apartments 
may  become,  in  some  cases,  recesses  in  the  main 
room  or  house  place,  or  be  divided  from  it  by  sliding 
doors  ;  so  that  even  in  a  small  house,  costing  it  may 
be  only  a  few  hundred  pounds,  one  may  enjoy  a  cer- 
tain spaciousness  of  environment,  instead  of  being 
cramped  within  the  narrow  confines  of  the  isolated 
apartment  of  the  small  villa.  A  reference  to  111.  307 
will  orive  some  idea  of  the  oreneral  effect  of  the  central 

o  o 

apartment  in  the  plans  we  are  considering.  Here  the 
separate  dining-room  has  dwindled  down  to  a  recess, 
and  the  space  added  instead  to  the  enlargement  of 
the  central  room.  The  dining  recess  (111.  302)  so 
formed  is  curtained  off  from  the  main  apartment 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  331 

while  the  table  is  being  prepared.  Labour  is  reduced 
to  a  minimum,  and  the  effect  of  this  recess  with  its 
fixed  seats  is  necessarily  more  attractive  than  the 
minute  dining-room  of  the  ordinary  type.  This  in- 
corporation of  the  dining-room  also  simplifies  the 
problem  of  heating  a  room  which  is  only  perhaps 
intermittently  occupied. 

The  position  of  the  parlour  at  the  other  end  of  the 
general  house  place  is  such  that  the  visitor  can  be 
shown  into  it  without  disturbing  the  privacy  of  the 
living-room,  and  it  will  be  noted  that  the  servant 
can  not  only  approach  the  dining  recess,  but  also 
the  front  door  of  the  parlour  and  the  bedrooms 
without  passing  through  the  living-room,  which,  while 
having  all  the  appearance  of  a  hall,  is  quite  free  from 
traffic. 

On  the  upper  floor  (111.  303)  there  are  four  bed- 
rooms and  a  bathroom. 


M.  H.  Baillie-Scott,  Architect. 


334 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  337 


House  at  Biddenham,  designed  by 
M.  H.  Baillie-Scott. 

(111.  308.) 

The  photograph  of  the  interior  of  the  house  at 
Biddenham  (111.  308)  illustrates  a  somewhat  similar 
apartment  in  a  small  house  to  that  described  on  page 
330,  where  the  same  principles  of  planning  are  followed. 
This  house  contains  a  second  sittincr-room  besides  the 
one  shown,  as  well  as  four  bedrooms,  a  bathroom  and 
the  usual  kitchen  premises. 


338 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


House  at  Letchworth,  designed  by 
C.  Harrison  Townsend,  F.R.I.B.A. 

(Ills.  309,  310,  311,  312,  313,  314,  and  315.) 

This  house  is  situated  in  Letchworth  Glade,  one 
of  the  conditions  attached  to  the  purchase  of  the 
land  being  that  a  width  of  twenty-five  feet  on  the 
boundary  next  the  public  carriage  way  should  be 
left  with  its  natural  turf  unfenced  in  and  unbuilt 
upon. 

A  feature  in  the  plan  (111.  310)  is  the  width  of  the 
veranda,  which  gives  a  space  of  twenty-seven  feet 
by  six  feet,  and,  as  will  be  seen  from  111.  314,  is 
sufficiently  large  to  be  used  for  meals,  and  for  sleep- 
ing out. 

The  garden  shown  on  111.  309  was  laid  out,  before 
the  house  was  commenced,  principally  as  a  rose 
garden,  and  was  in  a  well  -  developed  state  when 
the  house  was  first  occupied. 

The  materials  for  the  lower  part  of  the  walls,  as 
shown  in  Ills.  314  and  315,  were  stock  bricks  covered 
externally  with  rough  plaster,  not  rough  cast. 

The  upper  portion  of  the  walls  and  the  roof  have 
specially  selected  local  tiles,  which  are  of  a  pleasant 
dark  colour. 

The  chimneys  and  other  facing  brickwork  are 
of  local  bricks,  and  the  dressings  are  of  Doulting 
stone,  left  with  a  rough  tooled  face. 

Most  of  the  paintwork  to  the  house  is  white,  but 
that  to  the  dining-room  (111.  313),  including  ceiling 
joists  and  all  woodwork,  is  light  green,  the  walls 
being  whitewashed. 

111.  312  shows  the  hall  mantelpiece  with  visible 
brickwork  and  the  joists  of  the  floor  above. 


340  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


HOUSE  AT  LETCHWORTII 


III.  311.    First-floor  Plan. 


C.  Harrison  Townsend,  f.r.i.b.a.,  Architect, 


MODERN   ENGLISH  HOMES 


HOUSE  AT  LETCIIWORTII 


III.  312.    The  Hall  Mantelpipxe. 


III.  313.    The  Dining-room  Mantelpiece. 


C.  Harrison  Townsend,  f.r.i.b.a.,  Architect. 


342 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

HOUSE  AT  LETCIIWORTH 


III.  314.    The  Garden  Front. 


C.  Harrison  Townsekd,  f.r.i.ba.,  Architects 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 


The  Homestead,  Frinton-on-Sea,  designed  by 
C.  F.  A.  Voysey. 

(Ills.  316,  317,  318,  319,  320,  321,  and  322.) 

This  house  was  built  on  sloping  ground.  111.  316 
shows  the  plan,  of  which  the  main  features  are  the 
octagonal  dining-room,  the  large  parlour  and  the 
recessed  veranda  leading  to  the  pergola.  This  home 
is  a  good  example  of  the  art  of  Mr.  Voysey,  who 
has  done  so  much  to  simplify  domestic  architecture. 
It  is  of  brick  covered  with  one  inch  of  cement  rough 
cast,  which  is  the  cheapest  weather-proof  walling 
devisable. 

The  roof  is  boarded,  felted  and  covered  with 
Westmorland  ofreen  slates.  The  gutters  are  of 
oak,  tarred  inside  ;  and  the  down  pipes  of  lead. 
The  main  object  throughout  has  been  to  build  in 
such  a  way  that  the  cost  of  upkeep  should  be  reduced 
to  a  minimum. 

Owing  to  local  by-laws  all  the  rooms  had  to  be  made 
eight  feet  six  inches  high,  although  each  room  is  pro- 
vided with  a  nine-inch  by  nine-inch  exhaust  air-flue  and 
each  fireplace  has  an  air-tube  from  outside  the  building 
to  feed  the  fire  and  so  avoid  draughts  in  the  room. 
The  windows  are  in  Bath  stone,  with  iron  casements 
and  leaded  lights,  so  as  to  avoid  the  noise  of  rattling 
windows  and  to  preserve  an  equable  temperature 
throughout  the  year.  The  windows  are  kept  small 
as  the  ceilings  are  low  and  add  by  reflection  the  need- 
ful quantity  of  light.  The  smallness  of  the  windows 
helps  towards  the  equable  temperature  in  the  house. 
The  site  is  very  exposed,  which  is  an  additional  reason 
for  the  size  of  the  openings,  yet  they  are  adequate  to 
give  abundance  of  light.    The  floors  are  laid  direct  on 


III.  316.    Ground-floor  and  Garden  Plan. 

C.  F.  A.  VoYSEY,  Architect. 


III.  318. 


The  Parlour,  showing  Ingle-nook  Fireplace. 

C   F   A.  VoYSEY,  Architect. 


346  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 

THE  HOMESTEAD,  FRINTON-ON-SEA 


III.  319.    The  Dining-room  Fireplace. 


III.  320.    The  Parlour  looking  S.W.  and  showing  Billiard  Table. 

C.  F.  A.  VoYSEY,  Architect. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 

THE  HOMESTEAD,  FRINTON-ON-SEA 


347 


III.  322.    The  Entrance  Front. 

C.  F.  A.  VoYSEY,  Architect. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  349 

to  the  concrete,  and  have  been  found  to  contribute 
largely  to  the  preservation  of  an  even  temperature  in 
the  house ;  with  the  exception  of  the  dining-room, 
they  are  paved  with  black  Dutch  unglazed  vitrified 
tiles,  producing  a  pleasant  grey-black  colour. 

All  the  joinery  is  in  oak,  and  the  oak  wardrobes, 
dressing-tables  and  washstands  are  built  into  the 
walls,  so  as  to  avoid  loss  of  space  and  dust  traps, 
and  there  is  therefore  no  space  behind  or  beneath 
to  be  papered  or  carpeted. 

The  inside  walls  are  finished  in  rough  hand-floated 
plaster  and  are  distempered  white. 

The  arches  in  Ills.  318  and  319  are  in  red  tiles. 
The  cheeks  of  the  fireplaces  are  in  small  bricks, 
blackleaded.  The  decorative  scheme  is  white,  with 
oak  left  clean  from  the  plane  and  grey-black  tiled 
floors  with  red  tiles  in  the  arches.  The  first-floor 
joists  of  oak  are  exposed  to  view. 

All  the  furniture  is  in  oak,  left  free  from  stain  or 
polish  of  any  kind,  and  is  of  simple  and  effective 
design. 

The  window  sills  are  ofreen-olazed  Dutch  tiles. 
The  dinino-room  has  an  oak  dado  four  feet  hiorh, 
with  white  plaster  above,  and  is  furnished  with  side- 
board and  cupboards  in  three  out  of  the  four  corners 
forming  the  octagon  (Ills.  316  and  317). 

The  only  painting  necessary  is  for  the  gutter 
brackets  and  door  hinges.     All  the  bells  are  wire 

o 

cranked,  with  different  tones  for  each  room,  and 
the  house  is  electrically  lighted  throughout. 


350  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


HoUymount,  Knotty  Green,  Beaconsfield,  Bucks, 
designed  by  C.  F.  A.  Voysey. 

(Ills.  323,  324,  325,  and  326.) 

This  house  was  built  of  brick  rouorh  cast  for 
economy's  sake  and  has  a  green  slate  roof,  Bath 
stone  mulHons  and  iron  casements.  The  base  of 
external  walls  is  tarred  to  avoid  the  dirty  splashings 
and  produce  an  effect  of  repose. 

The  windows  have  plaster  jambs,  wood  lintels  flush 
with  plaster  and  green-glazed  tile  sills. 

The  chimney-pots  are  black,  because  the  boiled-out 
red  of  the  ordinary  pot  is  not  such  a  good  combination 
with  a  orreen  roof  as  a  black  colour.  The  woodwork  is 
all  in  deal,  painted  green  outside  and  enamelled  white 
inside. 

Every  room  has  a  little  ventilator  or  casement  the 
size  of  one  pane,  in  addition  to  the  larger  casements, 
and  a  nine-inch  by  nine-inch  air-flue  for  carrying  off 
vitiated  air. 


III.  324.    The  Entrance  Front. 

C.  F.  A.  VoYSEY,  Architect. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  353 


HOLLYMOUNT,  KNOTTY  GREEN,  BEACONSFIELD,  BUCKS 


III.  325.    Ground-floor  Plan. 


III.  326.    First-floor  Plan. 

C.  F.  A.  VoYSEV,  Architect, 


354  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


The  Orchard,  Chorley  Wood,  designed  by 
C.  F.  A.  Voysey. 

(Ills.  327,  328,  329,  330,  and  331.) 

Even  temperature,  economy  of  upkeep  and  restful 
effect  were  the  chief  points  aimed  at  in  designing  this 
house. 

The  rooms  are  eight  feet  in  height,  and  never  be- 
come stuffy  on  account  of  the  air-flue  provided  for  each 
room,  although  lighting  had  to  be  arranged  by  oil  lamps. 

The  walls  are  brick  rouorb  cast,  the  woodwork  is 
painted  bright  green  outside  and  white  enamelled 
inside,  the  roof  is  of  green  slates.  The  house  was 
placed  so  as  to  capture  the  morning  sun  at  breakfast 
time  (Ills.  328  and  329),  and  leaves  the  room  cool  in 
the  hottest  summer  for  dinner. 

The  furniture  is  of  oak,  and  the  walls  below  the 
picture-rail  plain  Eltonbury  paper,  the  frieze  above 
being  of  pure  white  distemper.  Cornices  and  moulci- 
ings  of  all  sorts  have  been  avoided  as  much  as 
possible  to  simplify  cleaning. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES 

THE  ORCHARD,  CHORLEY  WOOD 


355 

1 


III.  328.    The  Dining-room  looking  South. 

C.  F.  A.  VoYSEY,  Architect. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE  GARDEN 

General  Principles — Carriage-drive — Fencing — Lawns— Paths — Trees 
— Rock  Gardens — Beds — Pergolas — Kitchen  Gardens — Illustrations. 

GENERAL  Principles — Space  will  not  permit  of 
dealing  with  the  garden  at  any  great  length,  but 
a  few  general  principles  may  be  laid  down. 
Many  points  in  connection  with  the  house  and 
garden  are  regulated  by  the  superficial  area  to  be  dealt 
with. 

Breadth  and  repose  are  the  two  things  desired  in 
a  garden  of  moderate  extent,  and  these  can  best  be 
effected  by  fewness  of  parts  and  the  avoidance  of  all 
attempt  at  ostentation,  for  the  cutting  up  of  the  garden 
is  destructive  of  a  restful  result. 

Subsoil  drainage  has  already  been  referred  to  in 
chapter  ii.,  page  41,  but  it  may  be  stated  that  heavy 
clay  soils  should  be  drained  with  agricultural  pipes  of 
not  less  than  two  inches  in  diameter  laid  in  a  herring- 
bone pattern,  so  as  to  discharge  into  a  main  drain  of 
larger  diameter. 

The  turf  and  top  soil  taken  from  the  site  of  the  ^ 
house  should  be  kept  for  the  garden  and  not  carted 
away  by  the  builder,  for  if  there  is  a  superfluity  of 
soil  it  may  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  potting  and 
making  beds. 

garriage-drive — The  first  point  to  be  degided  in  a 

358 


THE  GARDEN  359 

small  garden  is  the  carriage-drive,  which,  though 
convenient  for  avoiding  the  annoyance  of  getting  to 
and  from  the  front  door  on  a  rainy  day,  has  its  dis- 
advantages ;  for  in  a  confined  space  the  turning  of 
the  carriage  is  somewhat  difficult,  often  causing  it  to 
pass  immediately  in  front  of  one  or  more  of  the 
sitting-room  windows. 

A  drive  should  as  a  general  rule  only  be  arranged 
where  the  house  is  set  back  at  least  sixty  feet  from 
the  road,  in  order  that  carriages  can  easily  turn  ; 
added  to  which,  if  there  is  not  sufficient  space,  there 
is  an  appearance  of  overcrowding  which  is  detrimental 
to  the  setting  of  the  house. 

Fencing— A  front  fence  may  be  treated  in  several 
ways,  but  the  conventional  dwarf  wall  and  hideous 
iron  railing,  which  so  often  disfigure  an  otherwise 
presentable  house,  should  be  avoided.  It  is  some- 
times possible  in  country  or  suburban  districts  to 
retain  the  wayside  hedge,  and  this  is  a  great  saving 
in  expense,  besides  adding  to  the  homely  appearance 
of  the  house,  as  seen  in  Ills.  241,  278,  324  and  331. 
One  of  the  best  and  simplest  fences  is  of  cleft  oak, 
which  looks  well  and  is  inexpensive  ;  but  an  open 
fence,  as  shown  in  111.  281,  is  sometimes  equally 
effective.  Ills.  225  and  232  show  a  fence  formed  of 
wooden  standards  with  wire  between  them. 

A  stone  wall,  as  shown  in  111.  262,  or  a  brick  wall 
with  wooden  railings,  as  shown  in  111.  257,  may  also 
be  satisfactory,  while  a  wall  made  up  of  rough  con- 
crete is  pleasing  if  treated  in  a  suitable  manner. 

It  is  advantaoreous  to  be  able  to  see  the  whole  of 
the  ground  from  some  portion  of  the  house,  as  this 
will  render  it  easy  to  supervise  and  to  obtain  effective 
service  from  the  gardeners  employed. 


360 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Lawns — The  garden  behind  the  house  is  generally 
occupied  by  a  lawn,  which  should  be  at  a  convenient 
distance  and  of  sufficient  dimensions  to  permit  of  a 
tennis-court  (seventy -eight  feet  long  by  thirty -six 
wide),  allowing  in  addition  at  least  ten  feet,  or,  if 
possible,  fifteen  feet  all  round,  to  prevent  the  players 
from  being  cramped. 

Nothing  is  more  delightful  than  to  look  out  on  an 
expanse  of  green  sward,  unmarred  by  numerous 
flower-beds  which,  for  a  large  part  of  the  year, 
remain  devoid  of  flowers  and  spoil  the  quiet  and 
reposeful  feeling  inspired  by  the  lawn  itself.  The 
angles  of  the  lawn  can,  of  course,  be  filled  in  with  low 
shrubs  provided  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  tennis 
players. 

Paths — A  raised  broad  gravel  path,  say  eight  to  ten 
feet  wide,  should  come  next  to  the  house  if  the  level 
of  the  ground  admits,  for  exercise  in  damp  weather 
and  this  may  act  as  a  terrace  and  be  connected  with 
the  lawn  itself  by  a  slope  or  flight  of  steps,  this 
fall  answering  the  additional  purpose  of  keeping  the 
ground  dry  around  the  house. 

Paths  should  only  be  provided  to  establish  com- 
munication between  the  various  parts  of  the  garden  ; 
if  they  are  laid  out  with  no  definite  object  they  do 
much  to  destroy  breadth  and  simplicity. 

They  should  not  be  less  than  three  feet  in  width, 
but  the  principal  paths  should  of  course  be  wider. 
They  should,  if  formed  in  a  heavy  soil,  be  drained 
with  open-jointed  agricultural  drain  pipes  laid  two  or 
three  feet  below  the  surface  and  covered  with  stones 
and  brickbats,  to  allow  of  the  percolation  of  water 
from  the  surface  (see  chapter  11.,  page  41). 

The  surface  should  be  of  gravel  at  least  two  inches 


THE  GARDEN  361 

in  thickness  and  well  rolled,  the  centre  of  the  path 
being  left  higher  than  the  sides  to  allow  it  to  drain 
naturally.  Old  flagstones  form  a  very  good  path,  and 
if  the  crevices  or  spaces  between  them  are  wide 
enough  to  allow  moss  to  grow  the  effect  is  distinctly 
pleasing. 

The  general  plan  of  every  garden  should,  if  pos- 
sible, be  arranged  in  order  to  give  the  most  favour- 
able positions  to  the  plants  intended  to  be  cultivated, 
whether  they  be  roses,  ferns,  shrubs  or  herbs. 

Trees — The  question  of  felling  old  trees,  whose 
spreading  branches  would  cover  a  new  house,  is  a 
very  important  matter,  and  has  been  already  referred 
to  in  chapter  11,,  page  43.  Yet,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  destruction  of  old  trees  always  seems  rather  sad, 
although  reverence  for  ancient  things  must  sometimes 
be  sacrificed  to  modern  necessities.  An  old  tree 
should  never  be  destroyed  without  careful  considera- 
tion, and  if  it  is  well  removed  from  the  house  the 
wish  to  retain  it  may  be  more  readily  humoured, 
though,  by  intercepting  the  sun,  it  may  interfere  with 
the  proper  cultivation  of  the  garden. 

Large  trees  in  a  small  garden  are  certainly  out  of 
place,  for  they  give  a  false  scale,  and  if  in  close 
proximity  to  the  house,  they  are  decidedly  bad  from  a 
sanitary  point  of  view,  as  they  keep  off  the  sun, 
obstruct  the  light  and  air  and  render  the  latter  moist 
and  stagnant. 

It  is  advisable  to  plant  new  trees  sparingly  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  house,  and  every  tree  should 
be  so  placed  as  to  improve  the  general  effect  of  the 
scheme. 

One  hint  may  be  given  to  those  who  are  starting  a 
garden,  namely  to  plant  it  so  as  to  have  a  continuity 


362  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


of  flowering  blossoms  from  the  spring  to  the  late 
autumn,  and  so  avoid  unsightly  gaps. 

A  garden  exposed  to  the  north  or  east  is  of  course 
liable  to  have  the  young  plants  nipped  in  the 
spring  of  the  year,  and  shelter  should  if  possible  be 
provided. 

Rock  Gardens — It  is  well  in  a  small  garden  not  to 
attempt  too  much,  although  a  rock  garden  with 
rivulet  or  fountain  may  be  arranged  in  a  quiet 
corner. 

Beds — Beds  should  as  a  rule  be  of  some  simple 
geometrical  pattern,  especially  in  a  small  garden,  for 
the  extravagant  Italian  designs  are  only  suitable  for 
large  gardens,  and  even  then  they  should  not  be  too 
elaborate  in  character.  Trenching,  two  spits  deep, 
should  be  carried  out  in  a  new  or  neglected  garden, 
but  care  must  be  taken  in  returning  the  excavated 
clods  that  the  top  soil  and  subsoil  should  occupy  the 
same  relative  positions  and  not  be  reversed,  as  is  fre- 
quently the  case. 

Pergolas — Pergolas  consist  of  an  open  roof  of  poles 
or  squared  beams  laid  horizontally  and  fixed  upon 
upright  posts  or  piers.  Brick  or  stone  bases  should 
be  provided  at  the  foot  of  the  vertical  supports,  but 
where  these  are  not  employed  the  ends  of  the  timbers 
must  be  creosoted  or  tarred  before  they  are  buried  in 
the  ground,  and  rough  concrete  should  be  rammed 
around  them  during  this  process. 

Vines,  roses,  wistarias,  honeysuckle  or  any  climbing 
plants  are  trained  to  grow  over  the  timbers,  and  thus 
is  formed  a  leafy  canopy  which  is  a  charming  feature 
in  the  garden. 

Kitchen  Gardens — Where  there  is  only  a  small  amount 
of  land  the  kitchen  garden  is  perhaps  better  omitted 


THE  GARDEN 


3^3 


and  the  extra  ground  thrown  into  the  pleasure  garden, 
although  walls  with  a  southern  aspect  may  always  be 
used  for  fruit  trees. 

A  kitchen  o^arden  on  a  small  scale  near  a  town  is  as 
a  rule  not  a  profitable  investment,  as  vegetables  are 
purchased  much  more  cheaply  than  they  can  be  pro- 
duced. 

Lettuces  and  the  like  may  sometimes,  however,  be 
conveniently  grown,  as  they  are  often  wanted  at  a 
moment's  notice,  and  it  is  then  useful  to  have  them 
fresh  and  close  at  hand.  A  small  orchard  and  kitchen 
garden  are,  when  suitable  and  sufficient  land  permits, 
most  delightful  adjuncts,  and  they  should  be  so 
planned  and  constructed  as  to  be  easily  accessible. 

Illustrations — The  desio^ns  of  various  orardens  are  shown 
in  Ills.  285,  300,  309  and  316,  which  are  effective 
and  simple  in  character,  and  frame  in  a  satisfactory 
way  the  houses  to  which  they  belong. 

111.  285  shows  originality  with  regard  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  drives.  This  can  partially  be  seen  in  111.  290, 
and  a  formal  garden  to  the  east  of  the  house  is  shown 
in  111.  289. 

111.  300  is  a  charming  drawing  of  the  grounds 
around  a  converted  Cotswold  farm-house. 

111.  309  shows  a  well-conceived  plan  with  an 
entrance  drive  and  servants'  entrance  at  one  angle  of 
the  site,  with  tennis  court  and  rose  garden,  pergola 
or  covered  walk  to  the  south,  beyond  which  is  an 
orchard.  The  kitchen  garden  is  conveniently  placed 
in  the  north-west  corner  near  to  the  kitchen  offices. 

Ills.  316  and  321  show  an  original  treatment  in 
which  a  large  pergola  forms  an  important  feature, 
beyond  which  is  a  rose  garden. 


CHAPTER  XX 


STABLES  AND  MOTOR  GARAGES 

The  Stable  (Plan  ;  Loose  Boxes  ;  Partitions  ;  Bales ;  Materials  ; 
Floors  ;  Walls  ;  Uoors  ;  Windows  ;  Fittings  ;  Door  Furniture  ;  Mangers  ; 
Hayracks  ;  Drains  ;  Ventilation — The  Harness-room — The  Coach-house 
— The  Coachman's  Quarters — The  Yard) — Motor  Garages  (Pit ;  Dimen- 
sions ;  Drains  ;  Accommodation  ;  Petrol  Store). 

THE  Stable — The  stable  should  be  placed  so 
that  it  is  not  an  annoyance  to  and  does  not 
injuriously  affect  the  health  of  the  occupants 
of  the  house  ;  but  it  should  not  be  stowed  away  in 
some  corner  simply  because  it  is  out  of  the  way,  for 
horses  want  as  much  care  in  their  treatment  as  human 
beings.  The  stable  should  have  a  southern  aspect, 
which  can  sometimes  be  arranged  by  placing  the  yard 
on  which  the  coach-house  opens  to  the  north. 

The  manure  should  be  collected  into  a  galvanized 
wirework  receptacle,  which  can  be  frequently  emptied, 
instead  of  in  a  manure  pit,  and  must  be  placed  as  far 
as  possible  from  any  doors  and  windows. 

Ills.  332,  333  and  334  show  a  small  stable  that  was 
designed  in  accordance  with  special  requirements. 

Plan — The  stable  plan  itself  is  governed  by  certain 
standard  measurements  ;  thus  a  stall  should  measure 
9  ft.  to  9  ft.  6  in.  from  heel-post  to  wall,  and  should 
be  6  ft.  from  centre  to  centre  of  the  divisions. 

The  walking  way  behind  the  stall  should  be  at 
least  6  ft.,  in  order  to  allow  a  person  to  pass  without 

364 


MODERN  ENGLISH  HOMES  365 

CHURCHILL  STABLES,  WEST  HAMP3TEAD 


III.  334.    The  Elevation. 

Banister  Fletcher  and  Sons,  ff.r.i.b.a.,  Architects. 


STABLES  AND  MOTOR  GARAGES  367 

being-  kicked  by  a  restive  horse  ;  but  where  possible 
it  is  advisable  to  have  a  walking  way  9  ft.  wide. 

Loose  Boxes — One  loose  box  should  be  provided,  even 
in  a  small  stable,  for  an  old  or  favourite  horse,  the 
usual  size  for  the  same  being  about  12  by  12  ft.  or 
12  by  14  ft.  But  where  the  space  is  cramped  these 
are  often  made  12  by  9  ft.,  and  two  existing  stalls  can 
thus  be  turned  into  a  loose  box  by  the  removal  of  the 
division.  Loose  boxes  are  preferable  to  stalls  where 
space  can  be  afforded,  and  horses  seem  less  likely  to 
acquire  such  bad  habits  as  wind-sucking  and  crib- 
biting  when  stabled  in  them.  To  be  tied  up  by  the 
head  day  and  night  is  an  unnatural  and  uncomfortable 
existence. 

Isolated  sick  boxes  are  absolutely  necessary,  and 
even  in  small  establishments  it  is  useful  to  have  one, 
which,  when  not  in  use,  can  be  put  to  other  purposes. 

The  Partitions  between  boxes  or  stalls  should  be  as 
low  as  possible,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  light  and 
air ;  they  should  have  a  framework  of  iron,  with 
standards  at  each  end  well  secured  to  the  floor,  and 
the  wood  filling  between  should  be  raised  above  the 
ground  at  least  2  in.,  in  order  that  there  may  be 
no  corners  where  dirt  can  lodge,  and  that  the  floor 
may  be  thoroughly  cleansed  with  the  hose.  These 
partitions  are  sometimes  boarded  to  their  full  height, 
but  this  is  not  a  good  arrangement.  The  upper  part 
above  the  level  of  the  manger  should  always  be  filled 
in  with  open  ironwork,  so  that  the  horses  can  see  one 
another,  for  being  sociable  animals  they  generally 
thrive  better  when  in  the  company  of  their  fellows. 

Bales — The  military  method  of  separating  horses 
by  merely  slinging  a  thick  plank  (called  a  bale) 
between   them    has    much  to  recommend   it  from 


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economical  and  sanitary  standpoints,  but  the  chief 
objection  is  that  horses  can  bite  and  worry  one 
another  unless  they  are  chained  up  somewhat  tighdy. 
The  bale  is  usually  slung  from  the  manger  and  ceiling, 
and  hangs  about  2  ft.  9  in.  from  the  ground. 

Materials — The  materials  employed  in  the  construc- 
tion of  stables  should  be  carefully  selected,  in  order 
that  they  may  be  kept  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

Floors — A  stable  floor  should  be  impervious,  easy 
to  clean  and  should  not  become  slippery  by  use ; 
brick  pavements  should  therefore  be  avoided,  because 
although  they  may  be  impervious  in  themselves,  the 
chamfered  joints  form  receptacles  for  dirt  and  allow 
fluids  to  settle  and  soak  through.  Adamantine  granite 
concrete,  if  properly  mixed,  forms  a  good  floor,  and 
does  not  get  slippery  by  wear.  In  stalls  and  loose 
boxes  it  should  be  laid  with  a  slight  fall  towards  a 
central  groove  and  also  towards  the  heel  channel  ; 
shallow  grooves  may  with  advantage  be  formed  lead- 
ing to  the  centre  groove,  the  latter  falling  towards  the 
heels  of  the  horses. 

Walls  should  be  of  impervious  materials  ;  the  lower 
part  to  the  height  of  the  woodwork  of  the  partitions 
should  be  finished  in  glazed  bricks  of  a  quiet  colour, 
as  a  glaring  white  is  bad  for  the  horse's  eyes,  and 
all  angles  should  be  formed  of  bull- nosed  bricks  in 
cement.  The  walls  above  this  dado  should  be  finished 
with  a  smooth  cement  face  and  should  be  distempered 
annually. 

Doors  should  be  at  least  4  ft.  wide  and  7  ft.  6  in. 
high  and  be  hung  in  two  heights,  so  that  the  upper 
part  may  be  left  open  for  ventilation. 

Windows  should  be  placed  in  the  wall  between  each 
stall,   the   sill  being  kept  at  least  8  ft.   from  the 


STABLES  AND  MOTOR  GARAGES  369 


floor,  so  that  the  eyes  of  the  horses  may  not  be 
affected  by  the  glare  of  the  Hght.  The  sills  of  the 
windows  in  the  passage  behind  the  stalls  should  be 
5  ft.  from  the  floor,  the  windows  being  formed  as 
casements,  but  hung  to  open  inwards  horizontally 
from  the  lower  rail. 

All  Fittings  and  Door  Furniture  should  project  as  little 

as  possible,  as  serious  injury  to  horses  may  otherwise 
be  caused. 

Mangers  should  be  made  of  metal,  and  if  enamelled 
white  they  look  clean  and  neat,  but  this  often  chips 
with  the  somewhat  rough  usage  it  is  liable  to  receive. 

Hayracks  should  also  be  made  of  metal,  and  must 
not  be  placed  higher  than  the  manger,  owing  to  the 
liability  of  dust  and  seeds  injuring  the  eyes  of  the 
horses. 

A  semicircular  frame  fixed  to  the  wall  into  which 
the  water-bucket  can  be  dropped  is  a  good  arrange- 
ment, enabling  a  horse  to  drink  at  leisure. 

Drains — A  typical  drainage  plan  for  a  small  stable  is 
given  in  111.  140  in  chapter  xi.,  page  165. 

All  drains  inside  a  stable  should  be  surface  drains,  as 
explained  in  chapter  viiL,  page  137,  the  old-fashioned 
idea  of  covered  drains  being  now  quite  obsolete. 

The  open  channels  mentioned  above  should  run  the 
whole  length  of  the  building  and  discharge  through 
an  opening  in  the  wall,  as  shown  in  111.  140,  into  an 
external  gully  trap  (see  111.  103). 

An  advantaore  in  usinor  the  o^ranite  concrete  as 
previously  described  is  that  the  open  drain  can  be 
made  in  the  cement  itself.  For  the  sake  of  economy 
in  the  use  of  straw,  light  iron  gratings,  easily  remov- 
able, are  sometimes  placed  over  the  open  channels, 
but  in  such  cases  care  must  be  taken  that  they  are 


370  THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


removed  daily  and  the  channels  thoroughly  washed 
down  with  the  hose. 

Ventilation — The  Commission  on  the  Ventilation  of 
Stables  gave  it  as  their  opinion  that  Animal  life  is 
most  perfectly  developed  and  its  functions  most 
perfectly  performed  under  conditions  of  free  diffusion 
of  the  atmosphere,  including  absence  of  stagnation, 
abundance  of  light,  absence  of  nuisance  and  sufficient 
space  to  live  in,"  and  any  one  who  has  had  to  do  with 
horses  will  endorse  the  accuracy  of  these  remarks. 

A  vitiated  atmosphere  is  at  the  root  of  many  of  the 
diseases  to  which  horses  are  liable,  and  one  veterinary 
surgeon,  known  to  the  authors,  keeps  the  door  and 
five  windows  of  his  stable  open  day  and  night  all  the 
year  round,  with  a  result  that  his  horses  are  always  in 
an  exceedingly  fit  condition.  The  windows  on  the 
south  side  of  the  stable  may  be  kept  open  in  this  way 
provided  that  the  horses  are  sufficiently  clothed,  for  it 
is  better  to  have  a  stable  too  cold  than  too  hot, 
although  the  endeavour  should  be  to  keep  the  temper- 
ature within  the  range  of  50°  and  70°  F. 

Windows,  no  doubt,  are  the  best  means  of  ventilating 
stables,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  draughts  by 
preventing  cross  currents.  Air  can  be  admitted  in 
other  ways,  one  method  being  to  have  a  three-inch 
continuous  air-brick  course  above  the  floor  line  in  the 
wall  at  the  rear  of  the  stalls  ;  another  method  is  to 
bring  the  air  by  ducts  up  the  heel-posts  and  regulate 
it  by  butterfly  valves,  but  this  is  not  to  be  recommended, 
as  the  ducts  become  clogged  and  foul. 

Outlets  for  vitiated  air  other  than  open  windows 
can  be  arranged  by  means  of  outlet  pipes  fixed  in  the 
ceiling  and  carried  through  to  an  external  ventilating 
turret,  as  shown  in  111.  334  ;  it  is  well  that  the  area  of 


STABLES  AND  MOTOR  GARAGES  371 


the  outlets  should  exceed  that  of  the  inlets,  so  that  by 
the  diffusion  of  the  incoming  air  draughts  may  be 
avoided. 

The  Harness-room — The  harness-room  should  be  close 
to  the  stable  but  not  in  direct  communication,  as  the 
damp,  heat  and  fumes  given  off  by  the  horses  in- 
juriously affect  and  destroy  the  harness.  Wood 
blocks  laid  upon  a  concrete  bed  form  the  best  method 
of  finishing  this  floor. 

The  wall  should  be  boarded  all  round  from  floor  to 
ceiling,  as  this  forms  a  surface  to  which  the  harness- 
racks  can  be  fixed  and  is  a  mod  and  lastino^  lininor  to  the 
walls.  The  harness-room  should  be  fitted  with  a  stove 
which,  in  small  establishments,  is  used  by  the  coach- 
man for  preparing  bran-mashes,  etc. 

The  Coach-house — The  coach-house  should  not  be  less 
than  15  ft.  deep  and  the  frontage  must  be  regulated 
by  the  number  of  vehicles  it  is  intended  to  hold  ;  it 
should  be  at  least  10  ft.  hiorh. 

The  openings  for  the  admission  of  carriages  should 
be  about  8  ft.  in  width.  Revolving  shutters  in  con- 
fined spaces  are  to  be  preferred  to  doors,  as  they 
take  up  no  floor  space  when  opened. 

The  forage  loft  is  usually  placed  over  the  coach- 
house or  stable,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  floor 
is  absolutely  dust-proof  in  order  to  prevent  anything 
getting  through. 

The  coach-house  must  be  kept  quite  dry  for  the 
proper  preservation  of  carriages,  as  nothing  is  more 
destructive  to  vehicles  and  their  upholstery  than  damp. 

The  paving  for  the  coach-house  may  be  of  the 
granitic  concrete  already  described  for  the  stables, 
and  stone  runners  may  be  placed  about  5  ft.  3  in. 
centre  to  centre,  to  take  the  wheels  of  the  carriages. 


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Coachman's  Quarters — ^The  coachman's  quarters  vary 
considerably,  and  if  he  is  a  married  man  they 
must  include  a  sitting-room,  larder,  scullery  and 
bedrooms,  The  rooms  should  rather  be  placed  over 
the  coach-house  than  the  stable  ;  but  if  over  the  latter 
the  floor  should  be  formed  of  concrete  and  thus 
rendered  as  dust  and  sound-proof  as  possible. 

The  Yard — The  yard  should  be  at  least  20  ft.  by 
25  ft.  and  the  washing  place  should  be  adjacent 
to  the  coach-house  and  stable  and  covered  over 
with  a  glass  roof,  so  that  shelter  is  provided  while 
cleansing  the  horses  and  carriages  in  wet  weather. 
A  movable  light  with  a  reflector  should  be  placed 
in  such  a  position  that  the  coachman  can  thoroughly 
see  to  do  the  cleaning  after  dark.  Everything  should 
be  done  to  induce  a  coachman  to  thoroughly  groom 
the  horses  and  wash  the  carriages  immediately  upon 
his  return,  as  this  is  most  essential. 

A  jointless  paving  material  is  not  so  important  for 
the  yard  in  the  open  air,  but  adamantine  or  other 
similar  bricks  laid  to  a  fall  towards  a  central  gully 
may  be  provided,  as  these  give  a  good  foothold 
to  horses  when  starting.  . 

Motor  Garages — Having  regard  to  the  extensive 
use  of  motor-cars  nowadays,  a  country  house  cannot 
be  considered  complete  without  some  provision  for 
their  storage,  either  for  the  convenience  of  the  owner 
or  his  guests. 

Ills.  335  and  336  give  a  plan  and  section  of  a 
small  motor  o-arao^e  which  has  been  found  to  answer 
the  purpose  satisfactorily. 

Pit — A  pit  for  access  to  the  machinery  from  below 
was  formerly  an  essential  in  every  garage,  but  manu- 
facturers now  make  the  engines  so  accessible  that 


STABLES  AND  MOTOR  GARAGES  373 


most  of  the  machinery  can  be  overhauled  without  it. 
Nevertheless  it  is  best  if  possible  to  provide  a  pit  which 
should  not  be  less  than  5  or  6  ft.  in  width  and  depth. 

Dimensions — It  is  advisable  that  the  garage  or 
motor  shed  for  one  car  should  not  be  less  than  i  2  ft. 
6  in.  in  width,  and  as  no  car  exceeds  5  ft.  9  in.  to 
6  ft.  across  the  wheel  base,  this  allows  the  chauffeur 
about  3  ft.  to  .get  round  the  car  for  examination  and 
to  make  the  necessary  repairs  and  adjustments,  and 
gives  sufficient  room  to  bring  the  car  into  the  shed 

A  MOTOR  GARAGE 


PCTRpL 
DIM 


vice     '  WINCH  FOg.' 

'  (Rising  ,/ 

1  BODY  OF/ 


0RAN0-] 

LITHIC  I 
PAVING  ( 


CAR  / 
V 


|PCG3 
I  ^ 
I  FOR. 


Q     O.CCTR)C  o 


ING  DOORS 


WASHING  space: 
III.  335.  Plan, 


III.  336.  Section. 


without  damaore  either  to  itself  or  to  the  o^araa-e.  The 
length  of  a  modern  car  does  not  as  a  rule  exceed 
18  ft.  including  the  lamps,  although,  of  course,  there 
is  a  tendency  to  increase  this  dimension,  but  if  21  ft. 
is  allowed  there  will  be  sufficient  room  for  a  bench 
and  vice  to  be  erected  at  the  back,  as  shown  in  Ills. 
335  and  336,  which  also  show  a  small  wardrobe,  a 
winch  for  raising  the  body  of  the  car,  and  a  useful 
shelf  carried  round  both  sides  of  the  buildino-.  The 

o 

height  should  not  be  less  than  10  ft. 

Drains — There  are  no  drains  in  the  motor-house,  but 
the  paving  has  a  slight  gradient  towards  the  front  so 


374 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


that  it  can  be  well  scrubbed  down.  It  should  drain 
into  the  washing  space,  which  should  have  an  area  at 
least  as  great  as  the  motor-house  itself,  and  should 
contain  a  catch-pit  for  sand,  etc.,  so  that  the  drains 
may  not  become  choked.  There  should  be  plenty  of 
ventilation  to  allow  of  the  escape  of  the  petrol  vapour, 
and  we  have  sometimes  arranged  for  the  doors  to  be 
built  of  slats  spaced  about  half  an  inch  apart  so  as  to 
allow  for  the  free  circulation  of  air.  Arrangement 
should  be  made  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  garage 
between  about  50°  and  70°  F.  Where  more  than 
two  motors  are  kept  it  is  sometimes  found  best  to  put 
them  in  separate  houses. 

Accommodation — A  messroom  and  dormitories  may 
also  be  required  for  the  men,  and  this  has  been  effected 
by  Mr.  Lutyens  (111.  285)  by  the  construction  of  small 
lodges  whose  external  treatment  is  shown  in  111.  286. 

When  an  electric-light  installation  has  been  provided 
it  is  usual  to  build  the  garage  close  to  it,  and  a  small 
charging  board  is  useful  for  charging  the  accumulators 
of  the  ignition  coils  and  the  small  electric  lamps  now 
so  usually  carried  upon  cars. 

Petrol  store — The  position  and  size  of  the  petrol  store 
are  governed  by  the  regulations  issued  by  the  Secretary 
of  State  under  the  Locomotives  and  Highways  Act 
1906-7,  and  by  those  of  the  local  authorities,  insurance 
companies  and  the  London  County  Council. 

Summarized  shortly  they  require  that  not  more  than 
sixty  gallons  be  stored  in  one  place  when  in  approved 
safety  cans  of  two  gallons  .each,  although  the  amount 
when  stored  in  tanks  is  unlimited.  The  store  should 
be  fire-resisting  and  have  protected  ventilators,  and 
where  possible  it  should  be  at  least  20  feet  away  from 
any  other  building. 


INDEX 


Abbot's  Kitchen  at  Glastonbury, 

Absorption  of  various  materials,  76 
Accommodation  for  chauffeurs,  3 1 3, 
374 

—  lor  coachmen,  372 
Accumulators  or  storage  batteries 

(electric  lighting),  199 
Acetylene  gas,  196 

 comparative  cost  of,  197 

Acre  Priory,  Castle,  Norfolk,  6 
Adaptation  of  existing  houses  to 

modern  requirements,  229 
Aerogen  Gas  Generator,  197 
Agricultural  drain  pipes,  41 
Air,  circulation  of,  43 
— •  composition  of,  209 

—  currents  in  a  room,  214 

—  gas,  196 

 De  Laitte  system,  196 

 comparative  cost  of,  197 

— ■  —  Michelite  system,  197 

—  comparative  cost  of,  197 

—  impurities  in,  209 

—  movements  of,  208 

—  quantity  required  in  ventilation, 
210 

—  suspended  matter  in,  210 
Ajax  Bath  overflow,  1 50 
Alnwick  Castle,  Northumberland, 

America,  influence  of  discovery  of, 
16 

Ampere  (electrical  term),  197 
Anglebay,  West  Hampstead,  318 
Anglo-Classic  mansions,  29 

 Period,  29 

Anthracite  stove,  180 
Anti-D-trap,  158 

Apartments,  family,  9,  11,  13,  18, 

22,  25,  27 
Arc  lamps,  205 

Architecture,  development  of  Do- 
mestic, I 


Architecture,  modern,  35 

 fault  in,  58 

Artesian  wells,  105 

—  well,  section  of,  105 
Artificial  lighting,  194 
Arundel  Castle,  Sussex,  6 
Ashford,  Kent,  a  bachelor's  house 

at,  286 
xA.spect,  47 

Asphalt,  horizontal  damp  -  proof 
course,  79 

Asphalted  felt,  inclination  of,  88 

Assistance  of  natural  light  by  re- 
flectors, 193 

Attic  floors,  85 

—  —  plans,  examples  of,  247,  252, 
266,  270,  274,  2to,  289 

Bachelor's  house  at  Ashford,  Kent, 
286 

Back-flow  trap,  137 

—  inlet  gully,  134 

Bailey,  ward  or  court  of  a  castle,  5 
Baillie-Scott,  M.H.,  architect,  330- 
337 

Bakehouse,  5,  19,  22 

Bales  for  separating  horses,  367 

Ballrooms,  32 

—  fresh  air  required  for,  211 

Ball  valves  for  water  supply,  122, 
183 

Bamborough  Castle,  Northumber- 
land, 6 

Bangor  slates,  69 

Banqueting-halls,  11 

Bartisans  for  fortification  of  towers, 
2 

Base  of  walls,  59 

Basement  for  domestic  offices,  36 
Basin,  lavatory,  11,  151 
Bastions  for  protection  of  castles, 
2,  17 

Bath  overflows,  150 

—  waste,  1 50 


23 


375 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


376 

Bathrooms,  13,  18,  33,  51,  55,  56, 
92,  94,  226,  231,  2  M,  241,  248 

—  decoration  and  furnishing  of,  226 

—  floors  of,  92 

—  walls,  94 
Baths,  149 
Batten  floors,  92 

Batteries,   storage  (electric  light- 
ing), 199 
Battlemented  parapets,  17,  21 
P)ay  windows,  15,  19,  23,  245,  288 
Beauchamp  Chapel,  Warwick,  9 
Beaumaris  Castle,  Anglesey,  8 
Bedrooms,  4,  13,  18,  20,  22,  27,  32, 
33.  52,  93,  96,  211,  217,  227,  234, 
251,  265,  298,  308 

—  decoration  and  furnishing  of,  227 

—  example  of,  308 

—  floors  of,  93 

—  fresh  air  required  for,  21 1 

—  ventilation  of,  217 
Beds,  flower,  362 
Bedsteads,  10,  28 
Bell-trap,  133,  157 

Belton  House,  near  Grantham,  31 
Belvedere  or  observatory,  293 
Benches,  10 

Bends  of  drainpipes,  128 
Bengeo  House,  Hertford,  251 
Berkeley  Castle,  Gloucestershire,  6 
Billiard-room,  32,  50,  56,  loi,  218, 
226,  231,  234,  293,  297 

—  decoration  of,  226 

—  ventilation  of,  218 
Birch  doors,  251 
Bishop  Gundulf,  5 

Bishop's  Palace,  Chichester,  kitchen 

at,  14 
 Wells,  20 

Bituminous  felt,  horizontal  damp- 
proof  courses,  79 
Blenheim  Palace,  Oxfordshire,  32 
Boilers  for  hot-water  heating,  182 
Bolton,  Arthur  T.,  architect,  246- 
249 

Bond  fire,  177 
Bookcases,  225 

Boothby  Pagnall   Lines.),  manor- 
house,  7 
Boudoir,  13,  18,  22,  32,  242 
Bowling-green,  23 
Bracket  water-closet,  142 
Bramshill,  Hants,  28 
Brass  ferrule  joint,  148 


lirazier  for  heating  rooms,  18 
P^reak  up  of  tradition,  35 
Breakfast  or  morning-room,  32,  49, 

50,  56,  226,  234 
Breakfast-room,    decoration  and 

furnishing  of,  226 
Brewhouse,  19,  22 
Brick  walls,  60,  248,  25  r,  257,  284, 

288,  290,  293,  323,  350 
Broughton  Castle,  Oxfordshire,  14, 

15 

Building  sites,  39 
Bungalow,  ground  plan  of,  54 
Burghley    House,  Northampton- 
shire, 28 
1  burners,  gas,  195 

Bury  St.  Edmunds,  Moyses'  Hall,  7 
Business-rooms,  32 
Butcher  Row,  Shrewsbury,  Chester, 
20 

Butlers'  sinks,  1 53 
Buttery,  9,  14,  18 

Caerphilly  Castle,  Glamorganshire, 
8 

Cambridge,  college  halls  at,  25,  28 
Camera  (bedroom  for  one  bed),  18 
Candles,  194 

Canterbury  Parade,  Westgate-on- 
Sea,  290 

Carbon  filament  electric  lamps,  204 
Cardiff  Castle,  Glamorganshire,  6 
Carpets,  10,  19,  28,  93,  224 

—  cork,  93 
Carriage-drive,  358 
Casement  windows,  64 

 examples  of,  239,249,259,267, 

271,  272,  277,  282,  286,  291,  295, 
299,  305,  308,  311,  316,  317,  321, 
322,  325,  327,  333,  342,  345,  346, 
347,  351,  355,  357 

 French,  98,  244 

Castle  Acre  Priory,  Norfolk,  6 

—  Alnwick,  Northumberland,  6,  17 

—  Arundel,  Sussex,  6 

—  Bamborough,  Northumberland,  6 

—  Beaumaris,  Anglesey,  8 

—  Berkeley,  Gloucestershire,  6 

—  Broughton,  Oxfordshire,  14,  15 

—  Caerphilly,  Glamorganshire,  8 

—  Cardiff,  Glamorganshire,  6 

—  Chipchase,  Northumberland,  6 
Conway,  Carnarvonshire,  8 

—  Dover,  Kent,  6 


INDEX 


377 


Castle,  Durham,  6 

—  Farnham,  Surrey,  6 

—  Haworth,  15 

—  Hever,  Kent,  19 

— •  Howard,  Yorkshire,  32,  33 
 plan,  section  and  eleva- 
tion of,  31 

—  Hurstmonceaux,  Sussex,  17 

—  Kenilworth,  Warwickshire,  10 

—  Langley,  Northumberland,  1$ 

—  Leeds,  Kent,  8 

—  Longford,  Wilts,  25 

—  Ludlow,  Shropshire,  i  5 

—  Lumley,  Durham,  17 

—  Newcastle,  Northumberland,  6 

—  Norham,  Durham,  6 

—  Oakham,  Rutland,  6 

—  Oxford,  Oxfordshire,  6 

—  Pembroke,  Pembrokeshire,  8 

—  Prudhoe,  Northumberland,  8 

—  Raby,  Durham,  14 

—  Raglan,  Monmouthshire,  15 

—  Richmond,  Yorkshire,  6 

—  Rising,  Norfolk,  6 

—  Rochester,  Kent,  6 

—  Scarborough,  Yorkshire,  6 

—  Stokesay,  Shropshire,  8 

—  Tattershall,  Lincolnshire,  17 

—  Warkworth,  Northumberland,  6, 
17 

—  Warwick,  6,  1 7 

—  Windsor,  Berkshire,  6 
Castles,  2,  4,  5,  7,  10,  17 

—  concentric.  8 

—  Decorated, fourteenth  century,io 

—  Early  English,  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, 7 

—  Norman,  2,  5 
• —  Saxon,  4 

Cave,  Walter,  architect,  251-255 
Ceilings,  22,  27,  8r,  82,  icq,  223, 

224,  225,  227,  257 
Cellars,  7,  22,  217 

—  ventilation  of,  217 
Central  log  fire,  5,  6,  9,  15 
Cesspools  for  the  disposal  of  sew- 
age, 44,  167 

Chairs,  19,  28,  223  , 
Chalk  soil.  42 
Chamber,  inspection,  128 
Chambered  boiler,  182 
Channel  gullies,  135 

—  pipes,  130 
Chapel,  5,  9,  II,  14,  27 


Chapel,  Beauchamp,  Warwick,  9 
Charney  Bassett,  Berkshire,  8 
Charterhouse,  London,  28 
Chauffeurs' quarters,  313,  374 
Cheese-room,  22 
Chests,  14,  18,  28 
Chevening  House,  Kent,  30 
Chichester,  kitchen  m  the  Bishop's 

Palace  at,  14 
Children's  room,  248 
Chimneys,  71,  80,  81,  288,  290,  293, 

302 

—  construction  of,  80 
China  rest,  222 

Chipchase    Castle,  Northumber- 
land, 6 
Chiswick,  villa  at,  29 
Choice  of  a  site,  39 
Chorley  Wood,  The  Orchard,  354 
Christchurch  (Hampshire),  22 

—  —  house  at,  7 

Christ  Church,  Oxford,  18 
Christopher  Wren,  30 
Churchill,  West  Hampstead,  284 
Circulation  of  air,  43 
Cistern,  117,  145,  183 

—  flushing,  145 

—  underground  water,  1 17 
Clay  soil,  42 

Climate  conditions,  40 
Cloakroom,  56 
Closed  stoves,  180 
Coach-house,  371 
Coachman's  quarters,  372 
Coal,  15 

Coal-gas,  194,  197,  206 

—  comparative  cost  of,  197,  206 
Coleshill,  Berkshire,  30 
Collection  of  refuse,  174 
 sewage,  166 

College  halls  at  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge, 18,  25,  28 

Colonel  Ducat's  system  of  treatment 
of  sewage,  171 

Combined  radiator  and  towel-drier, 
190 

Comparative  cost  of  various  illumi- 

nants,  197,  206 
Composition  of  air,  209 

 distemper,  95 

Compton  W^ynyates,  Warwickshire, 

21,  23 
Concentric  castles,  8 
I  —  wiring  for  electric  lighting,  201 


378 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Concrete,  76,  124 

—  and  steel  floors,  84 
 roofs,  89 

—  floors  reinforced,  85 

—  walls,  60 

Conditions  of  English  people,  social, 
I,  16 

Conduits  for  electric  wiring,  201 
Conservancy  system  of  collection  of 

sewag-e,  166 
Conservatories,  32,  49,  56,  92,  183, 

231,  234,  298 

—  temperature  required  for,  183 
Construction,  general  principles  of, 

—  of  chimneys,  80 
Consumption  of  water,  106 
Contamination  of  water,  source  of,  44 
Conway  Castle,  Carnarvonshire,  8 
Cooking-range,  51,  191 

—  stove,  electric,  186 
Copper  roofs,  89 

 inclination  of,  88 

Cork  carpet,  93 

Cornices,  external,  66^  254,  279 

Cornwall  slates,  69 

Corridors,  22,  23,  32,  48,  241,  313 

Corrosion  of  iron  drain  pipes,  127 

Cost  of  acetylene  gas,  197 

 coal-gas,  206 

 De  Laitte  air-gas,  197 

 electricity,  197,  206 

 installation  of  electric  light- 
ing, 206 

 Michelite  air-gas,  197 

 modern  English  homes,  248, 

251,  255,  265,  273,  279,  283,  284, 
287,  288,  290,  293,  297,  309 

Cottage  at  Wendover,  Bucks,  323 

Cottages  at  Astonbury,  Knebworth, 
Herts,  306 

—  workmen's,  55 

Country  house,  plan  of  large,  56 

—  —  drainage  plan  of,  164 

 in  Hampshire,  234 

 in  Surrey,  298 

 small,  245 

 drainage  plan  of  small,  163 

Couple  roof,  86 

Court,  quadrangular,  21,  22,  23 
Coventry,  town  house  at,  20 
Covered  dry  area,  80 
Covering  of  floors,  10,  15,  19,  28, 
91,  93 


Covering  of  walls,  15,  93 

Craftsmen,  16,  21 

Crawden's  house  at  Ely,  1 5 

Cubiculum  (rooms  for  two  or  three 
beds),  18 

Cucumber  pits,  temperature  re- 
quired for,  183 

Cupboards,  18 

Currents  of  air  in  rooms,  214 
Curtains,  221 

Cuthbert  Villas,  Westgate- on-Sea, 
288 

Cylinder  system  of  hot-water  sup- 
ply, 190 

D-trap,  157 
Dairy,  19,  22 

Dais  in  hall,  1 1,  13,  i  5,  18,  19,  26 
Dampness,  exclusion  from  build- 
ing, 74 

Damp-proof  courses,  78,  229 
Dawber,  E.  Guy,   architect,  257- 
263 

Daylight,  provision  of,  46 
Decorated  period  (fourteenth  cen- 
tury), 10 

 examples  of  the,  1 5 

Decoration  of  the  house,  220 
De  Laitte  air-gas,  196 

 comparative  cost  of,  197 

Depth  of  foundations,  75 
Destructors,  refuse,  175 
Detached  house,  drainage  plan  of, 

Development  of  domestic  architec- 
ture of  England,  i 
Devon  Fire,  177 
Diameter  of  drain  pipes,  127 
Dibdin    system   of   treatment  of 

sewage,  171 
Dining-hall,  fresh  air  required,  21 1 
Dining  recess  in  hall,  48,  330 
Dining-room,  17,  22,  27,  32,  49,  56, 
99,  ICQ,  223 

—  decoration  and  furnishing  of, 
223 

—  examples  of,  271,  275,  276,  281, 
318,  341,  345,  346,  355 

Discovery  of  America,  influence  of, 
16 

 India,  influence  of,  16 

Discharge  of  sewage  into  rivers, 
169 

—  — ■  the  sea,  169 


INDEX 


379 


Disposal  of  sewage,  167 

—  refuse,  174 
Disposition  of  windows,  47 
Distance    gas  lighter,  pneumatic, 

.'95 

Distemper,  composition  of,  95 
Distillation  of  water,  107 
Doctor's  house,  ground  plan  of  a, 
54 

Dog-grates,  29,  178 
Domestic  architecture  of  England, 
development  of,  i 

—  fire  extinguishers,  123 

—  hot-water  supply,  the  cylinder 
system,  190 

  the  tank  system,  188 

—  offices,  3,  4,  5,  8,  II,  14,  18,  22, 
25,  27,  30,  32,  33,  36,  47,  51,  92, 
94,  98,  217,  227 

—  supply  for  hot  water,  186 
Door  furniture,  98 

Doors,  internal,  97,  251 

—  stable,  368 
Doorways,  29,  34,  66 
Dormer  windows,  65 
Dormitorium  (bedroom  with  many 

beds),  18 
Dormitory,  6,  9,  18 
Double  floors,  83 
Doulting  stone,  338 
Dover  Castle,  Kent,  6 
Drainage,  gully  traps,  132 

—  inspection  chambers,  128 

—  plans,  160 

—  stables,  165,  369 

—  subsoil,  41 

—  surface,  136 

—  systems,  74,  160 

—  traps,  130,  132,  134,  137,  140, 
156,  158 

 anti-D,  157 

 back-flow,  137 

 bell,  133,  157 

 D,  157 

 grease,  134 

 gully,  132 

 interceptor,  131 

P,  156 

S,  156 
Drain  pipes,  124 

 agricultural,  41 

 bends,  128 

 channel,  130 

 diameter  of,  127 


Drain  pipes,  iron,  126 

 joints  of,  125 

 junctions  of,  127 

Drained  and  undrained  sites  com- 
pared, 41 
Drains,  inclination  of,  124 

—  laid  on  concrete  bed,  illustration 
of,  124 

—  motor  garage,  373 

—  siphonage  of,  explained,  158 

—  stable,  369 
Drawbridge,  1 1 

Drawing-rooms,  13,  17,  32,  49,93, 

98,  224  _ 
 decoration  and  furnishing  of, 

224 

 examples  of,  238,  243,  249, 

253,  260,  263,  275,  316,  345 

Dressing-room,  231,  248 

Drive,  carriage,  358 

Driving  pumps,  waterwheel,  116 

Drying-room  for  linen,  temperature 
required  for,  183 

Dry  areas,  80 

—  rot  in  timber,  83 

—  larder,  22 

Ducat's   system   of  treatment  of 

sewage,  171 
Durham  Castle,  6 

—  monastic  kitchen  at,  14 
Dwelling-house,  ventilation  of,  216 
Dwelling-room,    temperature  re- 
quired in  a,  183 

Dwellings,  peasants',  7,  20 

—  town,  7 
Dynamos,  198 

Early  English  period  (thirteenth 
century),  7 

—  Renaissance  period,  24 
Earth  closet,  166 

Earthenware  and  lead  pipes,  joints 

between,  147 
East   Barsham,  Norfolk,  Wolter- 

ton  Manor-house,  19 
Eaves  gutters,  68,  89 
■ —  of  roof,  86 

Eighteenth-century  period,  29 
Electric  arc  lamps,  205 

—  cooking  stoves,  186 

—  current,  fuse,  201 

—  flat  iron,  186 

—  fittings,  203 

—  heatmg,  185 


38o 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Electric  kettle,  i86 

—  lamps,  204 

—  light,  197 

—  —  comparative  cost  of,  197,  206 

 installation,  cost  of,  206 

 pendants,  203 

 switches,  200 

—  radiators,  185 

—  wiring,  200,  201 
Electrical  accumulators,  199 

—  horse  power,  197 

—  terms  defined,  197 

—  transformers,  200,  205 
Electricity,  cost  of,  197,  206 

—  measurement  of,  198 

—  production  of,  198 

Eleventh  century  (Saxon  period), 
3 

—  —  latter  part  (Norman  period), 
5 

Elizabethan  mansions,  24 

—  revival,  37 

—  style,  24 

Elmstead.  Limpsfield,  Surrey,  309 
Eltham  House,  Kent,  34 
Ely,  Prior  Crawden's  house  at,  15 
Enamelled  iron  bath,  149 

—  metal  ceilings,  loi 
Enceinte,  walls  of,  17,  20 
English  home,  evolution  of  the,  i 

—  homes,  modern,  cost  of,  248,  251, 
255,  265,  273,  279,  283,  284,  287, 
288,  290,  293,  297,  309 

—  people,  customs,  manners,  and 
social  conditions  of,  i,  16 

Entrance  doorways,  29,  34,  66 

—  liall,  30,  31,  33,  48 

—  lodge,  54 

—  porch,  II,  18,  19 
Evolution  of  English  home,  i 
Ewery,  18 

Examples  of  Decorated  period,  1 5 
 Early  English  (thirteenth  cen- 
tury) period,  8 

 gardens,  239,  249,  327,  329, 

339 

 Norman  period,  6 

 Perpendicular  period,  19 

Existing    houses,    adaptation  to 

modern  requirements,  229 
Expansion  joints,  153 

—  of  civilization,  power,  trade,  and 
wealth,  I,  16,  20 

Exterior,  the  (chapter  iv.),  58 


External  cornices,  66,  254,  279 

—  design,  general  principles  of,  58 

—  doorways,  29,  34,  66 

Facings  of  walls,  77 
Family  apartments,  9,  11,13,  22, 
25,  27 

Farm-house  at  Astonbury,  Kneb- 

worth,  Hertfordshire,  302 
Farm-houses,  6 

Farm,  Orchard,  Broadway,  Worces- 
tershire, 326 
Farnham  Castle,  Surrey,  6 
Fault  in  modern  architecture,  58 
Felt,  bituminous  damp-proof  course, 
79 

—  roofing,  86,  88 
Fences,  treatment  of,  359 
Feudal  hall,  2,  3,  4,  6,  7,  8,  11,  12, 

15,  17,  18,  19 

—  system,  i 

Fifteenth   century.  Perpendicular 

period,  16 
Fifth  house  at  Potters  Bar,  283 
Filters,  household,  108 
Filtration,  107 

Fire-extinguisher,  water,  123 

—  resisting  floors,  84 

—  security  against,  14 
Fireplaces,  5,  9,  15,  18,  21,  29,  48, 

56,  98,  222 

—  central  hearth,  5,  6,  9,  15 

—  as  ventilation  outlet,  214 
Fires,  gas,  179 
Fish-house,  22 

Fittings,  electric,  203 

—  stable,  369 
Flat-iron,  electric,  186 
Flat  roofs,  89 

Fletcher  and  Sons,  Banister,  archi- 
tects, 265-301 
Flint  houses,  3 

Floors,  10,  15,  19,  81,  82,  83,  84,  91, 
92,  164,  222,  227,  368 

—  batten,  92 

—  concrete  and  steel,  84 

—  coverings,  10,  15,  19,  28,  91,  93, 
224 

—  double,  83 

—  fire-resisting,  84 

—  hygienic,  82,  loi 

—  marble,  91 

—  mosaic,  91 

—  oak  batten,  92,  251,  257 


INDEX 


381 


Floors,  parquet,  92 

—  reinforced  concrete,  85 

—  stable,  164,  368 

—  steel  and  concrete,  84 

—  tile,  91 

—  wood-block,  85,  92 
Flower  beds,  362 
Flues,  gathering  of,  81 

—  size  of  chimney,  72 
Flushing  cisterns,  145 

■ —  gullies,  136 

Formal  gardens,  28,  33 

Forsyth  and  Maule,architects,302-8 

Fortified  manor-houses,  8 

Foundations  of  walls,  75 

Fourteenth    century,  Decorated 

period,  10 
Fourth  house.  Potters  Bar,  279 
French  casement  windows,  98,  244 
Fresh  air,  208 
Fuel.  15 

Furnishing  of  the  house,  220 
Furniture,  10,  19,  22,  28,  35,  220 

—  door,  98 

Fuse,  electric  light,  201 
Gables,  67,  302 

—  The  Three,  Potters  Bar,  273 
Gallery,  long,  27,  32 

— ■  minstrels',  11,  18,  26 
Garages,  motor,  372 
Garden  pavilion  overlooking  a  lake, 
301 

Garden  paths,  360 

—  rock,  361 

—  walls,  359 
Gardens,  23,  338,  358 

—  examples  of,  249,  339,  344 

—  fences,  359 

—  flower  beds,  362 

—  formal,  28,  33 

—  kitchen,  362 

—  of  modern  homes,  254,  259, 
261,  263,  272,  281,  287,  311,  315, 
317,  327,  329,  342,  344,  347,  351 

Gas,  acetylene,  196 

 comparative  cost  of,  197 

—  aerogen  generator,  197 

—  air,  196 

■ —  burners,  195 

—  coal,  194 

  comparative  cost  of,  197,  206 

—  De  Laitte  system,  196 

—  comparative  cost  of,  197 


Gas  fires,  179 

—  geysers,  191 

—  governor,  194 

—  lighter,  pneumatic  distance,  195 

—  mains,  44 

—  Michelite  air,  197 

 comparative  cost  of,  197 

—  producer  plant,  suction,  198 

—  radiators,  179 
Gatehouse,  11,  19,  20,  2\ 

—  Bishop's  Palace,  Wells,  20 
Gathering  of  flues,  81 
General  dormitory,  9,  18 

—  principles  of  construction,  74 
 of  decoration  and  furnishing, 

220 

 of  exterior  design,  58 

 of  heating,  176 

 of  internal  design,  91 

 of  planning,  46 

 sanitation,  139 

—  —  ventilation,  208 

 ventilation,    trapping,  and 

siphonage  of  drains,  153 

—  remarks  on  adaptation  of  exist- 
ing houses,  229 

Georgian  sash  window,  34,  62 
 elevation,  plan,  and  sec- 
tion, 64 

—  period,  29 
Geysers,  gas  and  oil,  191 

Glass,  importation  from  Normandy, 
9 

—  leaded,  65 

—  windows  first  used,  9,  1 5 
Glastonbury.  Abbot's  kitchen  at,  14 
Glazing  of  windows,  193 
Gloucestershire  stone  slabs,  70,  283 
Glover- Lyon  system  of  ventilation, 

216 

Gothic  (Tudor),  revival  of,  37 
Granaries,  5,  19 

Graperies,  temperature  required  in, 
183 

Grates,  99,  176 
Gravel  soil,  42 
Grease  traps,  134 
Great  Chalfield  Manor  House,Wilt- 
shire,  19 

—  hall,  decline  of  the,  18,  21 
Greek  revival,  36 

Greenhouses,  temperature  required 
for,  183 

Greenwich,  Queen's  House,  30 


382 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Grey  Walls,  Gullane,  N.B.,  313 
Groombridge  Place,  Kent,  31 
Grosvenor  Place,  S.W.,  No.  44,  241 
Ground  air,  40 

—  fall  of,  43 
Guernsey,  house  in,  231 
Guildford,  Surrey,  Sutton  Place,  21 
Guilds,  trade,  16 

Gullies,  back-inlet,  134 

—  channel,  135 

—  flushing-,  136 
Gully,  inspection,  136 

—  stable,  137,  165 

—  traps,  132 
Gundulf,  Bishop,  5 
Gutters,  eaves,  68,  89 

—  lead,  68,  89 

—  parapet,  68,  89 

Haddon  Hall,  Derbyshire,  19,  27 
Hall,  the,  2,  3,  4,  6,  7,  8,  9,  11,  12, 
15,  17,  18,  19,  21,  22,  23,  25,  26, 

27,  30,  32,  34,  48,  53,  56,  91,  93, 
99,  100,  216,  222,  231,  234,  237, 
251,  253,  260,  276,  341 

—  banqueting,  4,  11,211 

—  dais  in,  11,  13,  15,  18,  19,  26 

—  decoration  and  furnishing  of,  222 

—  entrance,  30,  31,  33,  38 

—  feudal,  2,  3,  4,  6,  7,  8,  1 1,  12,  1 5, 
17,  18,  19 

—  fireplace,  1 5 

—  floors  of,  91 

—  Haddon,  Derbyshire,  19,  27 

—  Hardwicke,  Derbyshire,  28 

—  Hengrave,  Suftblk,  22,  23,  32 

—  hind's,  22 

—  Holkham,  Norfolk,  32,  33 

—  Honington,  Warwick,  34 

—  inner,  231,  234 

—  Kedlestone,  Derbyshire,  32,  34 

—  Kirby,  Northants,  28 

—  Little  Wenham,  Suffolk,  8 

—  modern  examples  of,  237,  253, 
260,  276,  341 

—  Moyses',  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  7 

—  Oxburgh,  Norfolk,  19 

—  -  Penshurst,  Kent,  15 

—  recess  used  as  dining-room,  48, 
330 

—  sitting,  48,  283 

—  staircase,  234 

—  Saxon,  4 

—  Thorpe,  Peterborough,  34 


Hall,  ventilation  of,  216 

—  Warwick  Castle,  17 

—  (or  Palace),  Westminster,  12 

—  Yanwath,  Westmorland,  8 
Hammer-beam  roof,  88 
Hampton  Court  Palace,  18,  31 
Hardwick  Hall,  Derbyshire,  28 
Harness-room  for  stables,  371 
Hatfield  House,  Herts,  28 

—  —  —  ground   and  first-floor 
plans,  25 

Haworth  Castle,  1 5 
Hayracks  for  stables,  369 
Healthy  site,  selection  of,  40 
Heating,  electric,  185 

—  general  principles  of,  176 

—  hot- water,  181 

—  steam,  184 

Height  of  rooms,  59,  91,  343,  354 

—  ot  windows  from  floor  line,  61 
Hellyer's  Optimus  valve  closet,  143 
Hengrave  Hall,  Suffolk,  22,  23,  32 
Herring-bone  strutting  in  floors, 

82 

Hever  Castle,  Kent,  19 
High-pressure  system  of  hot- water 

heating,  184 
Hind's  hall,  22 
Hipped  roof,  67 

Historical  events,  influence  of,  16 
Holkham  Hall,  Norfolk,  32,  33 

 first-floor  plan,  32 

Holland  House,  Kensington,  25 

 plan  and  elevation,  26 

Hollow  walls,  77 

Hollymount,  Knotty  Green,  Bea- 

consfield,  Bucks,  250 
Home,  evolution  of  the  English,  i 
Homeleigh,  Potters  Bar,  269 
Homestead,   Frinton-on-Sea,  the, 

343 

Honington  Hall,  Warwickshire,  34 
Hophouse,  22 

Horizontal  damp  courses,  78,  229 
Horses,  stables  for,  364 
Hothouses,  temperature  required 
for,  183 

Hot  water  for  domestic  supply,  186 

 heating,  181 

 supply  ;  the  cylinder  system, 

190 

 supply  ;  the  tank  system,  188 

House  at  Ashford,  Kent,  bachelor's, 
286 


INDEX 


383 


House  at  Biddenham,  337 

 Christchurch,  Hampshire,  7 

 Letchworth,  338 

—  a  country,  56 

—  Belton,  Grantham,  31 

—  Burghley,  Northants,  28 

—  Chevening,  Kent,  30 

—  country,  in  Surrey,  298 

—  decoration  of,  220 

—  doctor's,  54 

—  dwelHng,  4,  20 

 drainage  plan  of,  164 

—  Eltham,  Kent,  34 

—  farm,  6,  88 

 at   Astonbury,  Kneb worth, 

Hertfordshire,  302 

—  Hatfield,  Herts,  25,  28 

—  Holland,  Kensington,  25,  26 

—  in  Guernsey,  231 
--  in  Hampshire,  234 

—  Knole,  Kent,  28 

—  manor,  i,  2,  6,  7,  8,  10,  11,  12, 
15,  17,  21 

—  manor,  at  Boothby  Pagnall,  7 

—  manor,  at  East  Barsham,  Nor- 
folk, 19 

—  manor,  at  Great  Chalfield,  Wilt- 
shire, 19 

—  manor,  at  South  Wraxall,  Wilt- 
shire, 19 

—  manor,  at  Sutton  Courtenay, 
Berkshire,  15 

—  manor,  fortified,  8 

—  Ockwells,  Berkshire,  20 

—  prospect  from,  47 

—  Roman,  4 

—  small,  245 

—  semi-detached,  53 

 at    Hampstead  Garden 

Suburb,  330 

—  suburban,  53 

—  timber,  20 

—  town,  7,  15,  16,  20,  164,  241 

—  aspect  from,  47 

—  yeoman's,  3 

Houses,  adaptation  of  existing,  to 
modern  requirements,  227 

Housemaid's  sink,  152 

Howard,  Castle,  Yorkshire,  31,  32, 
33 

Hurstmonceaux  Castle,  Sussex,  17 
Hygienic  floor,  82,  loi 
Hydrants,  water,  123 
Hydraulic  ram,  114 


Ightham  Mote,  Kent,  15 

Importation  of  glass  from  Nor- 
mandy, 9 

Impurities  in  air,  209 

Incandescent  gas,  195 

 burner,  195 

 comparative  cost  of,  197,  206 

Inclination  of  different  roof  cover- 
ings, 88 

 drains,  124 

Independent  craftsmen,  rise  of, 
16 

Influences  affecting  the  plan,  i, 
16 

Ingle-nooks,  99,  293 

—  nook,  examples  of,  271,  275,  276, 
289,  294,  305,  341,  345 

Inigo  Jones,  29,  30 

Inlet  ventilation  pipes,  155 

—  ventilating,  2 1 1 
Inner  hall,  231 

—  ward  of  castles,  5,  7 

Inns  of  Court,  London,  hall  at,  25, 
28 

Inspection  chambers  or  manholes, 
128 

 plan  and  section  of,  129 

—  guhy,  136 

—  pipe,  132 

Installation  of  electric  light,  cost 

of,  197,  206 
Insulating    conduits    for  electric 

wiring,  201 
Interceptor  stopper,  131 

—  trap,  131 
Internal  court,  21,  23 

—  design,  general  principles  of,  91 

—  doors,  97 

—  walls,  93 

Invention  of  printing,  influence  of, 
16 

Inverted  incandescent  gas-burner, 
195 

Iron  and  lead  soil  pipes  compared, 
148 

—  baths  enamelled,  149 

—  drain  pipes,  126 
 corrosion  of,  T27 

—  pipes  for  electric  wiring,  202 

■ —  ventilation  pipes,  to  drains,  i  56 
Irrigation,  disposal  of  sewage  by, 
168 

Italy,  influence  of  Renaissance  in, 
16 


.84 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Jacobean  style,  24 

—  mansions,  24 

Jews'  House  at  Lincoln,  the,  7 
Joints,  brass  ferrule,  148 

—  expansion,  153 

—  of  drain  pipes,  125 

 iron  pipes,  148 

 lead  pipes,  solder,  146 

 and  earthenware  pipes,  147 

—  metallo-keramic,  148 
Joists,  steel,  83 

—  wooden,  81 

Jones,  Inigo,  architect,  29 
Junction  of  drain  pipes,  127 

Kalkos  tubing  for  electric  wiring, 
202 

Kedlestone  Hall,  Derbyshire,  32, 
34 

Keen,  Arthur,  architect,  309-311 
Keep,  shell,  6 

—  square  (Norman),  2,  5,  8,  11 
Kenilworth-  Castle,  Warwickshire, 

10 

Kensington  Palace,  London,  31 

Kettle,  electric,  186 

Kinds  of  soil,  41 

King-post  roofs,  86 

Kirby  Hall,  Northants,  28 

Kitchen  and  offices,  3,  4,  5,  8,  9, 
II,  14,  18,  22,  25,  30,  32,  33,  47, 
51,  52,  92,  94,  98,  217,  227 

—  at  13urham,  monastic,  14 

—  at  Glastonbury,  Abbot's,  14 

in  Bishop's  palace  at  Chiches- 
ter, 14 

—  decoration  and  furnishing  of,  227 

—  floors  of,  92 

—  garden,  362 

—  ranges,  51,  191 

—  ventilation  of,  217 
Kitcheners,  51,  191 
Knole  House,  Kent,  28 

Kuhlos  wiring  for  electric  lighting, 
202 

Lady's  bower  or  chamber  (boudoir), 

13,  18,  22,  32 
Ladywell,  West  Hampstead,  297 
Lake  water,  103 
Lamps,  electric,  204 
 arc,  205 

—  oil,  194 

Lancashire  slates,  69 


Land,  tenure  of,  45 
Langley  Castle,  Northumberland, 
15 

Larders,  7,  14,  22,  52 

—  floors  of,  92 

Large  country  houses,  56 

 drainage  plan  of  a,  164 

 —  ground-floor  plan,  56 

Latter  part  of  eleventh  century, 

Norman  period,  5 
Laundry,  22 

Lavatories,  33,  50,  56,  92,  151,  217, 
231,  241 

—  ventilation  of,  217 
Lavatory  basin,  11,  151 
Lawns,  360 

Layer  Marney  Tower,  Essex,  24 
Lead  and  earthenware  pipes,  joints 

between,  147 
 iron  soil  pipes,  compared,  148 

—  gutters,  68,  89 

—  horizontal  damp  courses,  79 

—  roofs,  89 

 inclination  of,  88 

—  soil  pipes,  149 

—  veniilation  pipes,  155 

—  water  pipes,  1 13 
Leaded  glass,  65 
Leeds  Castle,  Kent,  8 
Library,  6,  32,  49,  225,  234 

—  decoration  and  furniture,  225 
Lighting,  44,  192 

—  artificial,  194 

 comparative  cost  of,  197,  206 

—  natural,  192 

Lincoln,  the  Jews'  House  at,  7 
Linen-room,  22 

—  temperature  required  for,  183 
Lip-trap,  132 

Little  Meadow,  Horsell,  Surrey, 
319 

—  Wenham  Hall,  Suffolk,  8 
Living-room,  4,  7,  20,  21,  22,26,47, 

211 

—  examples  of,  334,  336 

—  —  fresh  air  required  for,  21 1 
Lodge,  entrance,  54 

Lodges  for  valets  and  chauffeurs, 
3 '3 

Loggia,  or  veranda,  47,  265,  273, 

293,  338,  343 
London,  Charterhouse,  28 

—  Inns  of  Court,  at,  25,  28 

—  Kensington  Palace,  31 


INDEX 


385 


London,  Marlborough  House,  31 

—  Tower  of,  5 

—  villas  of  Regent's  Park,  36 
Longford  Castle,  Wilts,  25 
Long  gallery,  27,  32 

—  hopper  closet,  141 
Longleat,  Wilts,  28 
Loose  boxes  for  horses,  367 
Lord  of  the  Manor,  2,  12 
Lord's  chamber  or  parlour,  3,  13 
Low-pressure  system  of  hot-water 

heating,  181 
Ludlow  Castle,  Shropshire,  15 
Lumley  Castle,  Durham,  17 
Luton  brick,  251 

Lutyens,  Edwin,  architect,  313-318 
Luxfer  prisms,  194 

Machicolations  for  castles,  2,  17 
Maes    Heulyn,    Trefnant,  North 

Wales,  257 
Mahogany  furniture,  35 
Main  drainage  system,  44 
Mahhouse,  22 
Manger,  369 

Manholes  or  inspection  chambers, 
128 

—  covers  for,  132 

Manor-house   at   East  Barsham, 

Wolterton,  Norfolk,  19 

 Great  Chalfield,  Wiltshire,  19 

 South  Wraxall,  Wiltshire,  19 

 Sutton  Courtenay,  Berkshire, 

^5 

—  Border  or  Pele  tower,  17 

—  Boothby  Pagnall,  Lines,  7 

—  fortified,  8 

Manor-houses,  i,  2,  6,  7,  8,  10,  11, 

15,  17,  19,  21 
Manor,  lords  of  the,  2,  12 
Mansions,  Anglo-Classic,  29 

—  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean,  24 

—  Queen    Anne    and  Georgian 
period,  31 

Marble  floors,  91 
Marlborough  House,  London,  31 
Marshy  soils,  42 
Materials,  3,  74 

—  absorption  of  various,  76 

—  used    in    the    construction  of 
stables,  368 

Matting  for  floors,  19 
Measurement  of  electricity,  198 
Mechanical  ventilation,  215 


Megohm  (electrical  term),  197 
Melton  Constable,  Norfolk,  34 
Metal  ceilings,  loi 

—  filament  electric  lamps,  204 

—  roof  coverings,  inclinations  of, 
88 

Metallo  -  keramic  joint,   lead  to 

earthenware,  148 
Michelite  air-gas,  197 

—  comparative  cost  of,  197 

Minstrels' gallery,  11,  18,  26 
Moats,  for  protecting  castles,  2,  5, 

6,  10 

Modern  architecture,  35 
 fault  in,  58 

—  English  homes,  246-357 

 —  examples  of,  248,  251,  255, 

273,  279,  283,  284,  287,  288,  290, 

293,  297,  309 

 —  gardens  of,  254,  259,  261, 

263,  272,  281,  282,  311,  315,  317, 
327,  329,  342,  344,  347,  35' 

—  requirements,  adaptation  of  ex- 
isting'" houses  to,  229 

Moisture  of  soil,  40 
Monasteries,  suppression  of  the,  20 
Monastic  kitchen  at  Durham,  14 
Morning  or  breakfast-rooms,  32,  49, 

50,  56,  226,  234 
Morning  -  rooms,   decoration  and 

furnishing  of,  226 
Mosaic  floors,  91 
Motor  garages,  372 
 size  of,  373 

—  pit,  372 

Movement  of  air,  208 
Moyses'  Hall  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds, 
7 

Music-room,  32,  224,  326 

Natural  light,  assistance  of  by  re- 
flectors, 193 
Natural  lighting,  192 

—  ventilation,  21 5 
Nautilus  fire-grate,  178 
New  College,  Oxford,  18 

—  Farm-house,  Astonbury,  Kneb- 
worth,  Herts,  302 

Newel  electric  light  fittings,  203 
Nineteenth  century,  modern  archi- 
tecture, 35 
Norham  Castle,  6 
Norman  castles,  2,  5 
 examples  of,  6 


386 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Norman  period  (the  latter  part  of 
the  eleventh  century  and  the 
twelfth  century),  5 

—  keeps  or  towers,  2,  5,  8,  1 1 
Normandy,    importation  of  glass 

from,  9 
Nurseries  for  children,  96 

Oak  batten  floors,  92,  251,  257 

—  furniture,  28 

—  panelling,  26,  27 

 examples  of,  238,  281,  318 

Oakham  Castle,  Rutland,  6 
Observatory  House,  Westgate-on- 

Sea,  293 
Ockwells  House,  Berkshire,  20 
Offices,  kitchen,  etc.,  3,  4,  5,  8,  9, 
II,  14,  18,  22,  25,  27,  30,  32,  33, 
47,  51,  92,  94,  9^,  217,  227 
Ohm  (electrical  term),  197 
Oil  geysers,  191 
■ —  lamps,  194 

—  lighting,  comparative  cost  of, 
197 

Old  house  at  Christchurch,  Hamp- 
shire, 7 
Open  dry  areas,  80 

—  grates,  1 76 
Optical  corrections,  72 
Optimus  valve  water-closet,  143 
Oratory  or  chapel,  5,  9,  11,  14,  27 
Orchard,  Chorley  Wood,  354 

—  Farm,  Broadway,  Worcester- 
shire, 326 

Ordinary  floors,  81 
Osram  electric  lamps,  204 
Outer  ward  of  castles,  5 
Outlet  ventilation  pipes,  155, 

—  ventilating,  213 
Oxburgh  Hall,  Norfolk,  19 
Oxford  Castle,  Oxfordshire,  6 

—  Christ  Church,  18 

—  New  College,  18 

—  University,  College  at,  28 
Oxygen  sewage  puritication  system 

of  sewage  treatment,  172 

P-traps,  158 
Painted  walls,  96 

Palace,  Blenheim,  Oxfordshire,  32 

—  Chichester,  Bishop's,  14 

—  Hampton  Court,  18,  31 

—  Kensington,  31 

—  (or  Hall)  of  Westminster,  11 


Palace,  Wells,  Bishop's,  20 
Pan  water-closet,  140 
Panelling  of  walls,  26,  27,  265 

—  examples  of,  237,  238,  281,  318 
Pantiles,  88 

—  inclination  of  roof,  88 
Pantry,  9,  14,  18,  22,  52 

—  decoration  and  furniture  of,  228 

—  sink,  52 
Paper,  wall,  94 
Parapet  gutters,  68,  89 
Parapets,  21,  68 
Parlours,  3,  13,  22,  100,  331 

—  summer  and  winter,  22 
Parquet  floors,  92 
Pastry-room,  22 

Paths,  garden,  360 
Peasants'  dwellings,  7,  20 
Pele  towers,  11,  17, 
Pembroke  Castle,  8 
Penshurst  Place,  Kent,  15 

—  — •  —  plan  and  elevation  of,  12 
People,  manners  and  customs  and 

social  condition  of  the,  i,  4,  16 
Pergolas,  343,  362    _  > 
Perpendicular     period  (fifteenth 

century),  16 

 examples  of,  19 

Petrol  store,  374 
l^icture-rail,  94,  222,  223,  224 
Pineries,  temperature  required  in, 

Pipes,  agricultural  drain,  41 

—  channel,  130 

—  inspection,  1 32 

—  iron  drain,  corrosion  of,  127 

—  iron  water,  118 

—  —  for  electric  wiring,  202 
 ventilating,  156 

—  lead  water,  113 

—  materials  for,  155 

—  soil,  iron  and  lead,  146 

—  unions  and  junctions  for  water, 
118 

Pits,  for  motors,  372 
Places  to  avoid  in  selecting  a  site, 
44  . 

Plain  tiles,  inclination  of,  88 
Plan,  drainage,  160 

—  E-shaped,  25,  30 

—  general  principles  of,  46 

—  H-shaped,  25,  30 

—  manor-house,  6 

—  modern  examples  of,  246-357 


INDEX 


387 


Plan,  quadrangular,  25 

—  stable,  346 

—  types  of,  53 
Playroom  for  children,  248 
Plenum  system  of  ventilation,  215 
Pneumatic   distance   gas  lighter, 

Pocock,    Maurice    H.,  architect, 
319-325 

Points  to  consider  in  selecting  a 
site,  43 

Porcelain  enamelled  baths,  149 

Porch,  entrance,  11,  18,  19 

Porte  cochere,  234 

Portcullis,  11,17 

Position  of  site,  42 

Potters  Bar,  Fifth  House,  283 

 Fourth  House,  279 

—  —  The  Three  Gables,  273 

 Homeleigh,  269 

 Seldown,  265 

Prentice,  A.  N.,  architect,  326-329 
Principal  rafters  in  roofs,  86 
Principles  of  construction,  74 

—  —  decoration  and  furnishing, 
220 

 external  design,  58 

 heating,  176 

 internal  design,  91 

 planning,  46 

 sanitation,  139 

 ventilation,  208 

 of  drains,  154 

Printing,  invention  of,  16 
Prior  Crawden's  House,  Ely,  i  5 
Priory,  Castle  Acre,  Norfolk,  6 
Producer  plant,  gas,  198 
Production  of  electricity,  198 
Prometheus  electric  radiators,  185 
Prospect  from  house,  47 
Provision  of  daylight,  46 
Prudhoe  Castle,  Northumberland, 
8 

Pumps,  104 

—  turbine-driven,  116 

—  water-wheel  driving,  1 16 
Purlins  for  roofs,  86 

Quadrangular  court,  2r,  22,  23 
Quantity  of  air  required,  210 
Queen  Anne  period,  29 

 and  Georgian  mansions,  31 

Queen-post  roof,  88 

Queen's  House,  Greenwich,  30 


Raby  Castle,  Durham,  14 
Radiator  and  towel-drier,  190 
Radiators,  183 

—  electric,  185 

—  gas,  179 
Rafters  for  roofs,  86 

Raglan  Castle,  Monmouthshire,  15 
Rainfall,  42,  102 
Rain  water,  102 

 heads,  1 50 

Ram,  hydraulic,  114 
Ramparts  for  defence  of  castles,  5 
Range,  cooking,  51,  195 
Raynham  Hall,  Norfolk,  30 
Reduction  of  retainers,  effect  of,  21 
Refectory,  6 

Reflectors  for  windows,  193 
Refuse,  collection  and  disposal  of, 
174 

Refuse-destructors,  175 
Regent's  Park,  London,  villas  at,  36 
Reinforced  concrete  floors,  85 
Remarks  on  adaptation  of  existing 

houses,  229 
Renaissance,  early  period,  24 

—  in  Italy,  16 
Retainers,  9,  14,  21 
Richmond  Castle,  Yorkshire,  6 
Rising,  Castle,  Norfolk,  6 
River  water,  103 

Rivers,  discharge  of  sewage  into, 
169 

Rochester  Castle,  Kent,  6 
Rock  gardens,  361 
Roman  house,  4 

—  officers,  villas  of,  4 
Roof,  concrete  and  steel,  89 

—  couple,  86 

—  coverings,  inclination  of  different, 
88 

—  eaves  of,  86 

—  flat,  89 

—  hanmier-beam,  88 

—  hipped,  67 

—  king-post,  86 

—  opening  for  escape  of  smoke  in,  5 

—  Cjueen-post,  88 
Roofing  felt,  86 

—  shingles,  70 

Roofs,  5,  12,  15,  35,  67,  68,  69,  70, 
71,  85,  86,  88,  89 

—  copper,  89 

—  example  at  Penshurst,  15 

—  inclinations  of,  88 


388 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Roofs,  lead,  89 

—  shingles,  70 

—  slates,  69 

—  stone  slab,  70,  283 

—  thatch,  71,  306 

—  tiles,  68 

—  timber,  12 

—  zinc,  89 
Rooms,  48 

—  •  air  currents  in,  214 

—  bath,  13,  18,  33,  51,  55,  56,  92, 
94,  226,  231,  234,  241,  248,  251, 
265 

—  ball,  32,  211 

—  bed,  4,  13,  18,  20,  22,  27,  32,  33, 
52,  93,  96,211,  217,227,  234,251, 
265,  298,  308 

—  billiard,  32,  50,  56,  loi,  218,  226, 
231,234,293,297 

—  business,  32 

—  cheese,  22 

—  dining,  17,  22,  27,  32,  49,  56,  99, 

ICQ,  223 

—  drawing,  13,  17,  32,  49,  93,  98, 
224 

—  height  of,  59,  91,  9^,  343,  354 

—  library,  6,  32,  49,  234 
--  living,  7,  20 

—  linen,  22 

—  morning  or  breakfast,  32,  49,  50, 
56,  234 

—  music,  32,  224,  326 

—  pastry,  22 

—  planning  of,  48 

—  smoking,  50,  loi,  279 

—  thoroughfare,  21,  22,  23,  30,  32 

—  withdrawing,  7,  13,  15,  18,  22,  27 
Roses,  Wars  of  the,  20 

Rough  cast  on  walls,  61,65,  77,  248, 
257,  265,  269,  309,  3  54 

Royal  Palace  or  Hall  of  West- 
minster, 12 

Rushes  for  floors,  19 

S-traps,  156 

Saddle-boiler  for  kitchen  ranges, 
etc.,  132 

Safety  valves  for  hot-water  systems, 
186 

Saloon,  the,  30 
Salsarium,  the,  1 5 
Sanitary  fittings,  general  principles 
of,  139 

Sash  window,  34,  62,  64,  213 


Saxon  castles,  4 

—  period  (eleventh  century),  3 
Scarborough  Castle,  Yorkshire,  6 
Scholars,  dispersion  from  Constan- 
tinople, 16 

Scott-Moncrieff  system  of  treat- 
ment of  sewage,  170 

Scouring-house,  22 

Screen  in  banqueting-hall,  11,  13, 
15,  18,  19,  21,  26 

Scriptorium  (writing-room),  6 

Sculleries,  floors  of,  92 

Scullery,  decoration  and  furnishing 
of,  227 

—  sink,  52,  151 

Sea,  discharge  of  sewage  into,  169 
Seaside  home  in  Thanet,  246 
Seaton  Delaval,  Northumberland, 
33 

Seldown,  Potters  Bar,  265 
Selecting  site,  points  to  consider 
in,  43 

Semi-detached  house,  plan  of,  53 

 drainage  plan  of,  163 

 ground     and  first-floor 

plans,  53 

 houses  at  Hampstead  Garden 

Suburb,  330 
Septic  tanks,  44 

 system  for  treatment  of  sew- 
age, 171 
Servants'  hall,  231 

—  stairs,  231,  234 
Serving-room  or  servery,  7,  49,  56 
Seventeenth-century  period,  first 

half,  24 

 latter  half,  29 

Sewage,  collection  of,  166 

—  discharge  of  into  rivers,  169 
 sea,  169 

—  disposal  of,  167 

—  treatment  of,  170 
Shell  keep,  6 

Sheringham  inlet  ventilator,  212 
Sherwood,     Newton     St.  Cyres, 

Devon,  255 
Shingles,  roofing,  70 
Short-hopper  closet,  141 
Shrewsbury,  Chester,  Butcher  Row 

at,  20 
Shutters,  wicker,  5 

—  wooden,  9,  66 
Sideboards,  28,  49 
Simplicitas  water-closet,  142 


INDEX 


389 


Sink,  butler's,  153 

—  housemaid's,  152 

—  pantry,  152 

—  scullery,  52,  151 
Sinks,  151 

Siphonage  explained,  158 

—  of  drains,  i  54 
Siphonic  water-closets,  144 
Site  (chapter  ii),  39 

—  healthy,  40 

—  points  to  consider  in  selecting  a, 

—  position  of,  42 

Sites,  drained  and  undrained,  com- 
pared, 41 
Sitting-hall,  48,  283 

 examples  of,  237,  244,  276  | 

Sitting-rooms,  18,48,96  ! 

—  —  examples  of,  304  ' 
Suspended  matter  in  air,  210 
Sixteenth    century,    first     half  I 

(Tudor),  20 

 latter  half,  24 

Size  of  chimney  flues,  72 

 motor  garage,  373 

 ventilators,  2 1 3 

 windows,  192 

Skirtings,  94 
Slates,  69,  265 

—  Bangor,  69 

—  Cornwall,  69 

--  horizontal  damp  courses  of,  79 

—  inclination  of,  88 

—  Lancashire,  69 

—  roof,  69 

—  Westmorland,  69,  279,  343 
Sleeping-apartments,  fresh  air  re- 
quired for,  21 1 

Slow-combustion  stoves,  177 
Small  country  house,  245 
 drainage  plan,  163 

—  stable,  drainage  plan  of.  164 
Smaller  houses  of  the  Late  Renais- 
sance period,  34 

—  town  houses  of  the  Perpendicu- 
lar period,  20 

Smoking-room,  50,  loi,  279 
Social  conditions  of  English  peo- 
ple, I,  4,  16 
Soil,  chalk,  42 

—  clay,  42 

—  gravel,  42 

—  kinds  of,  41,  4^ 

—  made  ground^  42 


Soil,  marshy,  42 

—  moisture  in,  40 

—  pipes,  146 

— -  —  iron  and  lead  compared,  148 

Solar,  3,  6,  8,  9,  1 3 

Soldered  joint,  146 

Sources  of  contamination  of  water, 

—  —  spring  water,  section  of,  103 
South  Wraxall  Manor-house,  Wilt- 
shire, 19 

Spring  water,  sources  of,  103 
Stable  drainage  plan,  165,  369 

—  drains,  369 

—  doors,  368 

—  floors,  164,  368 

—  fittings,  369 

—  gully,  137,  165 

—  harness-room,  37  i 

—  partitions,  367 

—  yard,  372 

—  walls,  368 

—  windows,  368 
Stables,  9,  32,  33 

—  drainage  of,  165,  369 
Staircase,  7,  23,  26,  33,  48,  216,  222 

—  hall,  234 

—  decoration  and  furnishing  of,  222 

—  ventilation  of,  216 
Stairs,  servants',  231,  234 
Stalls  for  horses,  364 

Stannos  wiring  for  electric  light- 
ing, 202 

Stanton  Harcourt,  Oxfordshire,  18 

Steam  heating,  184 

Steel  and  concrete  floors,  84 

 —  roofs,  89 

Steel-armoured  insulated  conduits 

for  electric  wiring",  201 
Steel  casements,  65 

—  joists,  83 
Still-house,  22 

Stoke  Park,  Northants,  30 
Stokesay  Castle,  Shropshire,  8 
Stone  cornices,  67 

—  slates,  inclination  for,  88 

—  dressmg,  257,  284 

—  slabs  (roofing),  70,  283 

—  walls,  60 

Stoneware  drain  pipes,  124 
Stopcocks  for  water  pipes,  120 
Storage  batteries   (electric  light- 
ing), 199 

—  of  petrol,  374 


390 


THE  ENGL 


ISH  HOME 


Storage  of  water,  1 1 1 
Storehouse,  5 
Stoves,  176 

—  anthracite,  180 

—  electric  cooking,  186 
Stove-houses,  temperature  for,  183 
Straw  for  floors,  19 

Strutting  in  floors,  82 

Struts,  86 

Study,  22,  ICQ,  225 

—  decoration  and  furnishing  of, 
.  225  _ 

Subsoil,  40 

—  drainage,  41 

—  drain  pipes,  41 
Suburban  house,  5  3 

Suction  gas  producer  plant,  198 
Summer  parlours,  22 
Suppression  of  the  monasteries,  20 
Surface  drainage,  136 
— -  water,  41 

Suspended  matter  in  air,  210 
Sutton    (^ourtenay  Manor-house, 
Berkshire,  i  5 

—  Place,  Guildford,  Surrey,  21,  23 

—  system  of  treatment  of  sewage, 

Switches,  electric  lighting,  200 

Table  lamp  ;  electric  light,  203 
Tables,  10,  19,  28 

Tank  system  of  domestic  hot-water 

supply,  188 
Tantalum  electric  lamps,  204 
Taps,  1 19 

Tattershall  Castle,  Lincolnshire,  17 

Tenure  of  land,  45 

Temperature  of  building  sites,  40 

—  required  in  various  rooms,  183 
Terraced  houses  drained  towards 

front,  plan  of,  161 

 back,  plan  of,  162 

Thanet,  a  seaside  home  in,  246 

Thatch  roofs,  71,  306 

 inclination  of,  88 

The  domestic  architecture  of  Eng- 
land, development  of,  i 

The  evolution  of  the  English 
home,  I 

Thirteenth-century  (Early  English) 
period,  7 

Thorpe  Hall,  near  Peterborough,  34 
Thoroughfare-rooms,  21,  22,  23,  30, 

y- 


Three  Gables,  Potters  Bar,  273 
Tie-beams,  86 
Tile  floors,  91 

Tiles,  roofing,  68,  2 5 1 ,  269,  284,  290, 
302,  309,  338 

 inclination  of,  88 

Tilt  fire,  178 
Timber,  dry-rot  in,  83 

—  roof,  12 

—  walls,  61,  288,  359 

Tinned  brass   tubes  for  electric 

wiring,  202 
Tobin  tube  inlet  ventilator,  212 
Towel-drier,  190 
Tower  of  London,  plan  of,  5 

—  or  keep,  Norman,  2,  3,  5 
Towers,  Pele,  11,17 

Town  houses,  7,  16,  20,  55,  164,  241 
 drainage  plan  of,  163 

—  house,  ground  and  first  -  floor 
plans,  55 

Townsend,  C.  Llarrison,  architect, 

^38-342 
Trade,  expansion  of,  i 

—  guilds,  16 

Transformers,  electric  light,  200, 205 
Transoms  in  high  windows,  65 
Traps.  anti-D,  1 58 

—  back-flow,  137 

—  bell,  133,  157 

—  I^,  157 

—  draniage,  130,  131,  132,  134,  137, 
140,  156,  157,  158 

—  grease,  134 

—  gully,  132 

—  interceptor,  131 
-P,  158 

—  S,  156 

—  water-closet,  140 
Trapping  of  drains,  154 
Treatment  of  fences,  359 
■ —  sewage,  170 

Trees,  43,  361 
Types  of  plans,  53 

 water-closet,  140 

Typical  drainage  plans,  160 
Tudor  manor-houses,  21 

—  period  (first  half  of  sixteenth 
century),  20 

Turbines,  199 
Turrets,  71 

Twelfth  century,  Norman  period,  5 
Twentieth  century,  modern  period, 
35 


INDEX 


391 


U-traps,  133 

Underground  cisterns,  117 
Undrained  sites,  41 
Unit  (electrical  measurement),  198 
University  College,  Oxford,  28 
Urinals,  145 

Vacuum  system  of  ventilation,  215 
Valve  closet,  143 

—  ball,  for  water  supply,  122,  183 
Valves,  safety,  for  hot-water  sys- 
tem, 186 

Ventilation,  general  principles  of, 
208 

—  Glover- Lyon  system  of,  216 

—  inlets,  2 1 1 

—  mechanical  systems  of,  215 

—  natural  system  of,  214 

—  of  a  dwelling-house,  216 

—  of  drains,  1 54 

—  of  floors,  83 

—  of  stables,  370 

—  outlets,  fireplaces  as,  214 

—  pipes  for  drainage  systems,  155 

—  trapping  and  siphonage  of 
drains,  155 

 pipes  recjuired,  213 

Ventilator,  size  required  for,  213 
Verandas,  or  loggias,  47,  265,  273, 

293,  338,  343 

Vertical  damp  courses,  80 

View  from  house,  47 

Villa  at  Chiswick,  29 

Villas  of  the  Imperial  Roman  offi- 
cers, 4 

Villages,  21,  58 

Vitrified  fire-clay  bricks,  horizontal 

damp  course,  79 
Volt  (electrical  term),  197 
Voysey,  C.  F.  A.,  architect,  343-357 

Wall-paper,  94 

Walls,  10,  59,  76,  222,  223 

—  base  of,  59,  75 

—  brick,  60,  248,  251,  257,  284,  288, 
290,  293,  323,  350 

—  concrete,  60 

—  coverings,  15,  93 

—  facings,  77 

—  foundations  of,  75 

—  half-timber,  61,  288 

—  hollow,  77 

—  internal,  93 

—  of  stables,  368 


Walls,  rough  cast,  61,  77,  248,  257, 
265,  269,  309,  354 

—  stone,  60 

—  weather  board,  61 
Ward  of  castle,  inner,  5,  7 

 outer,  5 

Wardrobe,  9,  14,  18,22 

—  for  motor  garages,  373 

Wark worth    Castle,  Northumber- 
land, 6,  17 
Wars  of  the  Roses  (1455-85),  20 
Warwick  Castle,  6,  17 
Wash-down  water-closet,  142 
Wash-out  water-closet,  141 
Washing-closets  (eweries),  18 

—  place  in  a  stable,  165 
Waste,  bath,  150 

—  pipes,  bath,  1 50 
Water-carried  system  of  collection 

of  sewage,  167 
Water-closets,  50,  92,  139,  217,  226, 

241,251 

 decoration  of,  226 

 various  types  of,  140 

 ventilation  of,  217 

 walls  of,  94 

Water,  consumption  of,  106 

—  distillation  of,  107 

—  distribution  of,  113 

—  examination  of,  no 

—  filtration  of,  107 

—  fire-extinguishers,  123 

—  fittings,  102 

—  hardness  of,  112 

—  hydrants,  123 

—  impurities  in,  107 

—  lake,  103 

—  nitrification  of,  107 

—  physical  properties  of,  105 

—  pipes,  lead,  1 13 

—  —  iron,  1 18 

 unions  and  junctions  for,  118 

—  stopcock  for,  1 14 

—  storage  of,  in 

—  supply,  44,  102 

 ball  valves  for,  122,  183 

—  —  cisterns,  n7,  183 

—  taps,  1 19 

—  waste  preventers,  145 
Watt  (electrical  term),  197 
Weather  boarding  for  walls,  61 

—  tiling  on  walls,  60 
Well  fire,  177 

—  artesian,  105 


24 


392 


THE  ENGLISH  HOME 


Well,  section  of,  104 
Wells,  Bishop's  Palace  at,  20 
Welsbach   incandescent  mantles, 
195 

Wendover,  Bucks,  cottages  at,  323 
Wenham  Hall,  Little  Suffolk,  8 
West  Hampstead,  Anglebay,  318 
 Churchill,  284 

—  —  Ladywell,  297 
Westgate-on-Sea,  Canterbury  Pa- 
rade, 290 

—  Cuthbert  Villas,  288 

—  The  Observatory,  293 
Westminster    Royal    Palace,  or 

Hall,  12 

Westmorland  slates,  69,  279,  343 
Wet  larder,  22 
Wicker  shutters,  5 
Winchelsea,  houses  at,  16 
Window  bars,  62 

Windows,  4,  9,  15,  19,  23,  34,  47, 
61,  62,  64,  65,  98,  192,  213,  245, 
368 

—  bay,  15,  19,  23,  245,  288 

—  casement,  64 

—  disposition  of,  47 

—  dormer,  65 

—  French  casement,  98 
• —  Georgian,  34,  62 

—  glazing  of,  193 

—  heig^ht  from  floor  line,  61 


Windows,  sash,  34,  62,  213 

—  size  of,  192 

—  stable,  368 

Windsor  Castle,  Berkshire,  6 
Wine  cellar,  22 
Winter  parlours,  22 
Wiped  soldered  joint,  146 
Wiring,  electric,  200,  201 
Withdrawing-room,  7,  13,  15,  18, 
22,  27 

Wolterton     Manor  -  house,  East 

Barsham,  Norfolk,  19 
Wood-casing  for  electric  wiring,  20 1 
Wood-block  floor,  85,  92 
Wooden  cornice,  67,  279 

—  joists,  81 

—  shutters,  9,  66 
Workmen's  cottages,  55 
Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  30 
Writing-room  (scriptorium),  6 
Wrought-iron  casements,  65 
Wynyates,    Compton,  Warwick- 
shire, 21,  23 

Wynnes  Park,  North  Wales,  261 

Yanwath  Hall,  Westmorland,  8 
Yard,  stable,  372 
Yeoman's  house,  3 

Zinc  roofs,  89 

—  inclination  of,  88 


WILLIAM   BKKNUON   AND   SON,  LTD 
i'KLVTEKS,  l^LVMOUTll 


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